Rubber Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rubber - Research Paper Example â€Å"Rubber is also useful as an adhesive, a coating composition, a fiber, a moulding compound and an electrical insulator.† (Rubber)Apart from natural rubber, artificial rubber also invented later. The history and background of rubber can be an interesting topic because of the conspiracy about the origin of rubber. â€Å"Until recently, modern thinkers believed rubber originated in 19th century Europe. According to a Tech Talk article published by Massachusetts Institute of Technology on Wednesday, July 14, 1999, Professor Dorothy Hosler, Assistant Professor Sandra Burkett and an undergraduate named Michael Tarkanian learned that the Mayan people in ancient Mesoamerica made and used rubber as long ago as 1600 BCE.† (Snider) Though the extensive use of rubber just like at present was not known to the Mesoamericans. The first use for rubber was an eraser. It was Magellan, a descendent of the famous Portuguese navigator, who suggested this use (Brief History & Introduction of Rubber) Still rubber is used as an eraser and there are not much substitutes or competition for rubber in this area also. In fact the peculiar thing about rubber is that there is no substitute for many uses of rubber. For example, for tire making, tube making or for an eraser making we don’t have any other subs tances to replace rubber. In 1839, Charles Goodyear accidentally dropped rubber and sulfur on a hot stovetop, causing it to char like leather yet remain plastic and elastic. Vulcanization, a refined version of this process, transformed the white sap from the bark of the Hevea tree into an essential product for the industrial age (Butler) The modern methods of vulcanization of rubber has invented later. The vulcanization character of rubber is made use in the making of tires, tubes and many other material manufacturing. Vulcanization makes rubber material harder, much more durable and also more resistant to chemical attack. Vulcanization of rubber is done by mixing of

Melodramatic stage Essay Example for Free

Melodramatic stage Essay It isnt so free here either, Rodolfo, like you think. I seen greenhorns sometimes get in trouble that way they think just because girls do not go around with a shawl around her head that she isnt strict, yknow? Girls dont have to wear black dresses to be strict. Know what I mean?  Although Eddie did not absolutely loose his temper he has forewarned Rodolfo very frankly in front of the whole of household that he should keep his distance from Catherine. Well, I always have respect   I know, but in your town you wouldnt just drag off some girl without permission, you know what I mean Marco?  Marco who has been quiet until now cautiously says yes, he does not want to interfere between Rodolfo and Catherine but does not want to answer Eddie no as this would make Eddie distrustful of him, which he wants to avoid.  Well he didnt just drag her off though, Eddie.  Beatrice on the other hand gets fractious by this and sharply replies to Eddie, Eddie aware of her criticising force softens up but doesnt stop. He goes on to say   It might be a little different here, but it is just as strict. Rodolfo now realises Eddies anger for him and in a tender-hearted voice asks him-  Did I do anything wrong.  Eddie now propitiates and tells him that he is not her father, but before he could finish, Beatrice ungraciously interrupts and rebukes him to be her uncle. Eddie realising her indignation keeps his temper under control, as he wants to show Rodolfo who is the person in jurisdiction of the house  Marco who has been without intervention listening to the whole matter gets up in a censurable way and asks Beatrice and Eddie to tell Rodolfo, if he has made any mistakes. Marco probably does not fully actualizes Eddies anger against Rodolfo yet, he thinks it is ephemeral and tries to make things more transparent and satisfy Eddie. Beatrice tells Eddie that the reason why Rodolfo and Catherine came late was because the movie ended late, but Marco tries to calm Eddie by asking Rodolfo to come home early. Eddie sensing Marco on his side tries to restrict Rodolfos movements and stop him going out with Catherine by saying   Look, kid, I am not only talking about her. The more you run around like this more chance there is that you get picked by immigration bureau.  Beatrice senses Eddies intentions and again ungraciously interrupts him between his conversations and says that there is the same chance in the daytime. Until now Eddie has been attempting to make his point Non contentiously, but after being ungraciously rebuked by Beatrice, he gracelessly tells cousins that he thought they were both coming here to work and earn money, not fool around. This exceptionally strikes with Marco as he has responsibility for feeding his wife and children. Marco confirms with Eddie, that this is still the case. This embarrasses Marco, because by saying that if you are here to work than you should work, Eddie is essentially saying you can only live in my house if, you work hard and particularly mind your own business. This is of exceptional significance to Marco as he has four children and a wife who he has to send money which provides for their food and medicine, or else they would die. This is also the first awkwardness between Marco and Eddie as until now Eddie has regarded Marco as a hard working man and always respected him. Catherine who is the focal point of this entire repercussion between cousins and Eddie is now glowing with revolt against him. Catherine who is a grown up girl, who wants to be free and spend more time with Rodolfo views Eddie as someone preventing her from outside world, indeed, Eddie is obsessed with Catherine and is extremely over-protective towards her. He wants to dominate every aspect of her life, from the clothes she wears to the person she waves to and where she should go for a job. And now Catherine flushed with anger tries to disobey Eddie by inviting Rodolfo to dance with her on Paper Doll. Rodolfo, who is afraid that Eddie may make an issue of this, shows some fictional unwillingness in difference to Eddie. Beatrice countenances Rodolfo to go ahead and dance. Catherine takes Rodolfos hand and he stiffly rises, feeling Eddies eyes on his back they dance. The tension between the characters can be easily seen in their actions. Catherines rebellious behaviour is easily visible, when she goes to Rodolfo and takes his hand in her hand and invites him to dance. Rodolfo doesnt easily agrees to dance, he first shows fictional unwillingness feeling Eddies eyes on his back, but after being inspired by Beatrice stiffly rises and goes to dance.  Eddie perceiving the tension in the house does not react to Catherine dancing with Rodolfo, but turns his head away in a very deprecate demeanour. At this point in the play, audience know that Eddie Carbone is very prophylactic towards his niece and he despises Rodolfo. This new crisis has taken a categorically different turn; Catherine is becoming more and more mutinous and Beatrice is advocating Rodolfo and Catherine. Eddie seems to be the only person secluded trying to what he thinks, protect Catherine from Rodolfo. Audience anticipate this extremity to be deciphered possibly by Beatrice. Throughout the whole play Beatrice has been impersonated by Miller as the most consequential person on Eddie Carbone, she has also actively tried to diffuse the tensions by jokes and in some contentions she has taken sides and silenced Eddie. She is also the person who is most consequential and proximate to Eddie. However, Carbone household is once again under strain, as Eddie Carbone the prophylactic, unpretentious character soon finds out that he is  Un-proficient to control his indignation, covetousness and detestation towards Rodolfo. Until now, Eddie has only been manifesting his indignation towards Rodolfo through declamation, but this melodramatically changes after Catherine, crimsoned with rebellion, disgusted with Eddies intervention in every countenance of her life invites Rodolfo to dance with her. This brings out an exorbitant indignation from Eddie, now we see Eddie expressing his vehemence not only through words but also through actions. After the dance, Eddie Carbone infuriated by his indignation delivers an atrocious dialogue to the whole of the household about Rodolfo.  Hes lucky, believe me. Thats why the waterfront is no place for him. I mean like me I cant cook, I cant sing, I cant make dresses, so Im on the waterfront. But if I could cook, if I could sing, if I could make dresses, I wouldnt be on the water front.  This speech is of un-describable significance to the play. In this speech Eddie nearly exposes the whole issue in front of the whole household, by his dialogue but more by his actions. Eddie, by the end of his speech is perfunctorily twisting the newspaper in his hand in to a tight roll when it unexpectedly tears in half. This shows exasperated and how fretful Eddie has become of Rodolfos relationship with Catherine, and now Eddies indignation has reached a new level against Rodolfo and now his furore and ire can be seen in his actions. As seen throughout the whole play Miller uses melodramatic stage directions and often characters dramatize actions which changes the course of the whole play. For example, Eddies furore and ire against Rodolfo are disclosed, when Eddie rolls the newspaper in to a tight roll and then it tears in two. These types of actions not only give audiences clues of how this particular character will react to this character and to this kind of situation next time, but also gives them clues of what will happen next in the play.

Analysis of SMEs in India

Analysis of SMEs in India What are SMEs? Small and medium enterprises (also SMEs, small and medium businesses, SMBs, and variations thereof) are companies whose headcount or turnover falls below certain limits. The lack of a universal definition for SMEs is often considered to be an obstacle for business studies and market research. Definitions in use today define thresholds in terms of employment, turnover and assets. They also incorporate a reasonable amount of flexibility around year-to-year changes in these measures so that a business qualifying as an SME in one year can have a reasonable expectation of remaining an SME in the next. The thresholds themselves, however, vary substantially between countries. As the SME thresholds dictate to some extent the provision of government support, countries in which manufacturing and labor-intensive industries are prioritized politically tend to opt for more relaxed thresholds. Definition of SMEs in Indian context The MSMED Act 2006, which came into force w.e.f. 02/10/2006, defines the Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises. As per the Act, the activities are classified into Manufacturing and Service Category. Initially, the MSMED Act 2006 had not defined the ‘Services Sector and RBIs guidelines were awaited. However, subsequently RBI have defined the services sector and the activities that can be covered under the SME sector. The following chart indicates the threshold investment levels for both Manufacturing sector (INVESTMENT IN PLANT MACHINERY) and Services sector (INVESTMENT IN EQUIPMENT) for the above three categories of Manufacturing and Services Enterprises : While calculating the investment in plant and machinery/equipment referred to above, the original price thereof shall be taken into account,irrespective of whether the plant and machinery/equipment are new or second hand. In case of imported machinery/equipment, the following duty/charges/costs shall be included in calculating their value: Import Duty (not to include miscellaneous expenses such as transportation from the port to the site of the factory, demurrage paid at the port); Shipping Charges; Customs Clearance charges; and Sales Tax or Value-added Tax. Cost of the following plant machinery/equipments etc would be excluded:; equipments such as tools, jigs, dies, moulds, and spare parts for maintenance and the cost of consumable stores; installation of plant machinery; research and development and pollution control equipments; power generation set and extra transformer installed by the enterprises as per the Regulations of the State Electricity Board; Bank charges and Service Charges paid to the National Small Industries Corporation or the State Small Industries Corporation; Procurement or Installation of cables, wiring bus bars, electrical control panels (not mounted on individual machines) Oil circuit breakers or miniature circuit breakers which are necessarily to be used for providing electrical power to the plant and machinery or for safety measures; Gas producer plants; Transportation charges (other than sales tax or value-added tax and excise duty) for indigeneous machinery from the place of their manufacture to the site of the enterprise); Charges paid for technical know-how for erection of plant machinery; Such storage tanks which store raw materials and finished products only and are not linked with the manufacturing process; Fire-fighting equipment; and Such other items as may be specified, by notification from time to time. In case of Service Enterprises, the original cost to exclude furniture, fittings and other items not directly related to the services rendered. Land and Building would also not be included while computing the machinery/equipments cost. SME would be meant to include Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). The above definitions of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises would be in place of the existing definitions of Small Medium Industries and SSSBEs/Tiny Enterprises. Micro Enterprises would include Tiny Industries also. Small Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Small Scale Industries (SSIs). Medium Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Medium Industries (MIs). Small Enterprises (Services) and Medium Enterprises(Services) would mean other Small Medium Enterprises. Thus, SME Advances would be categorised as under: All advances to segments viz. Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in the Manufacturing sector irrespective of sanctioned limits, (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers), and Advances to Services Sectors such as Professional Self-Employed, Small Business Enterprises, and Small Road/Water Transport Operators and other enterprises, engaged in providing/rendering of services, conforming to the above investment criteria and -enjoying borrowing/non-borrowing facilities with the Bank (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers). Those enterprises exceeding the investment ceilings would be categorized as Large Enterprises and be outside the purview of SME. The sanctioned limits would no longer be the criteria determining the status as micro or small or medium enterprises in these cases. Reserve Bank of India has since reviewed the definition on Priority Sector and have issued revised guidelines on lending to Priority Sector vide their Master Circular dated 2nd July, 2007. As per this circular Retail Trade is excluded from the activities classified as SME. (Source: www.bankofindia.com) Importance of SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the backbone of all economies and are a key source of economic growth, dynamism and flexibility in advanced industrialized countries, as well as in emerging and developing economies. SMEs constitute the dominant form of business organization, accounting for over 95% and up to 99% of enterprises depending on the country. They are responsible for between 60-70% net job creations in Developing countries. Small businesses are particularly important for bringing innovative products or techniques to the market. Microsoft may be a software giant today, but it started off in typical SME fashion, as a dream developed by a young student with the help of family and friends. Only when Bill Gates and his colleagues had a saleable product were they able to take it to the marketplace and look for investment from more traditional sources. SMEs are vital for economic growth and development in both industrialized and developing countries, by playing a key role in creating new jobs. Financing is necessary to help them set up and expand their operations, develop new products, and invest in new staff or production facilities. Many small businesses start out as an idea from one or two people, who invest their own money and probably turn to family and friends for financial help in return for a share in the business. But if they are successful, there comes a time for all developing SMEs when they need new investment to expand or innovate further. That is where they often run into problems, because they find it much harder than larger businesses to obtain financing from banks, capital markets or other suppliers of credit. Boosting industrial growth By enhancing existing capacities, and by delivering cost-efficient goods and services as per the requirements of the local markets, SMEs have been driving industrial growth. Inspiring Consumption and Social Change SMEs play a defining role by offering reasonable, yet revolutionary goods and services to cater to the changing market requirements. Currently, SMEs have made its presence felt in areas like education, medical care, transportation, entertainment and local infrastructure development. Minuscule investment SMEs need low capital investment, in terms of per unit of output Increased Employment Opportunities SMEs generate both direct and indirect employment opportunities, in 2006-07, for instance, for every ten million rupees invested by the SME sector spawned employment opportunities for over 150 people. However, the same amount of investment carried out by the overall economy generated employment for just 37. 4 people. As per Government statistics in 2007-08, SMEs generated employment for 31.25 million people. Fuelling the local economy SMEs make use of natural resources and domestic skills to cater to the domestic market. The growth of SME sector also helps in socio-economic upliftment as it generates employment opportunities for untapped masses, living in urban and rural regions. Discourages migration to urban areas SMEs are synonymous for entrepreneurship. And the best part being setting up an SME doesnt include much risk. If SMEs generate employment opportunities in rural and semi-urban areas, migration to urban areas can be stemmed to a great extent. Transition from Agriculture Economy to Service-oriented one SMEs can play a crucial role in achieving the transition from a dominant agricultural economy to a service oriented economy, akin to Japan. Japans agricultural workforce has gone done from 68 percent to 4.9 percent, in case of United States, from 44 percent to 9 percent. Further, Indian agriculture sector can no longer generate extra employment opportunities to meet the requirements of the ever-growing population. In such a situation, only SMEs can come to the nations rescue. SME in the global scenario Even in the global scenario SMEs have always played a crucial role in their respective countrys economy. International comparisons reveal that SMEs create the majority of jobs. In the USA, nearly half of the private workforce is employed in small firms, of which three-fifth have less than five employees. In Japan, 78 percent of jobs are generated by SMEs. The same sector in Korea accounts for 99 percent of all manufacturing enterprises and 69 percent of employment in this sector. Therefore, SMEs must play a central role in the countrys employment strategy. This will require modification of policies and programmes to level the playing field, improve availability of credit, increase productivity, raise quality consciousness and competitiveness, and enhance job quality. Recent experiences of different countries in the context of globalisation also demonstrate that SMEs are better insulated from the pressures generated by the volatility of world trade and capital markets. They are more resistant to the stresses, and more responsive to the demands of the fast-changing technologies and entrepreneurial responses. Indeed, they are observed to be a very important vehicle for new technology adoption and entrepreneurial development. Ensuring the competitiveness of the SMEs is important as it would help in overall growth of manufacturing sector as also the national economy. The Indian Context The micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) sector contributes significantly to the manufacturing output, employment and exports of the country. It is estimated that in terms of value, the sector accounts for about 45 per cent of the manufacturing output and 40 percent of the total exports of the country. The sector is estimated to employ about 42 million persons in over 13 million units throughout the country. Further, this sector has consistently registered a higher growth rate than the rest of the industrial sector. There are over 6000 products ranging from traditional to high-tech items, which are being manufactured by the MSMEs in India. It is well known that the MSMEs provide the maximum opportunities for both self employment and jobs after agriculture. Recognizing the contribution and potential of the sector, the definitions and coverage of the MSE sector were broadened significantly under the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006 which recognized the concept of â€Å"enterprise† to include both manufacturing and services sector besides, defining the medium enterprises. For collecting and compiling the data for the MSME sector (including khadi, village and coir industries), the Fourth All India Census of MSMEs with reference year 2006-07, is being conducted in the country. The Census will provide the first database on the MSME sector after the enactment of MSME Development Act, 2006. PERFORMANCE OF MSEs As per the quick estimates of 4th All-India Census of MSMEs, the number ofenterprises is estimated to be about 26 million and these provide employment to an estimated60 million persons. Of the 26 million MSMEs, only 1.5 million are in theregistered segment while the remaining 24.5 million (94%) are in the unregistered segment. The State-wise distribution of MSMEs show that more than 55% of these enterprises are in 6 States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Further, about 7% of MSMEs are owned by women and more than 94% of the MSMEs are proprietorships or partnerships. In view of the MSME sectors role in the economic and social development of the country, the Government has emphasized on its growth and development. It has taken various measures/initiatives from time to time which have facilitated the sectors ubiquitous growth. No discussion on MSMEs can be complete without a full treatment of the unorganized sector in which ent erprises are typically established through own funds or funds obtained through non-institutional sources, they lack managerial bandwidth, do not have established channels for marketing and are centered around a single traditional technology. More than 94 percent of MSMEs are unregistered, with a large number established in the informal or unorganized sector. The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) defines unorganized sector as enterprise employing less than 10 workers. It has estimated such enterprises at 58 million with employment generated of 104 million persons. Of these, more than half the workers are classified as ‘self-employed. A large segment in this universe of self-employed consists of those who are engaged in non-farm activities. This segment predominantly consists of own account enterprises, i.e., where there are no hired workers and are run by self with or without the help of unpaid family members. The own account enterprises can be distinguished into those running within households and those outside the households. The household enterprises operate on the basis of family labour organizing production on its own, acquire its own raw material, use its own machinery and tools and market its products. Apart from own account enterprises, this segment also consists of enterprises having hired workers between 2 to 9. Very often, these enterprises are located in clusters but function independently without inter-firm linkages. The Office of the DC (MSME) provides estimates in respect of various performance parameters relating to the Sector. The time series data in respect of the Sector on various economic parameters, is incorporated in the following Table: MSEs Performance: Units, Investment, Production, Employment Exports The figures in brackets show the % growth over the previous year. Projected COMPARISON OF THE MSE SECTOR WITH THE OVERALL INDUSTRIAL SECTOR: The MSE sector has maintained a higher rate of growth vis-à  -vis the overall industrial sector as would be clear from the comparative growth rates of production for both the sectors during last five years as incorporated in the Table given below: Comparative Growth Rates CONTRIBUTION OF MSEs IN THE GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) EMPLOYMENT IN MSE SECTOR The total employment from the MSE sector (including SSSBEs) in the country as per the Third All India Census of MSEs with reference Year 2001-02 was 249.33 lakh numbers. The units operating with fixed premises are treated as MSEs. As per the estimates compiled for the year 2007-08, the employment was 322.28 lakh persons in the sector. The share of MSEs in the total employment among units engaged in manufacturing and services is around 34.93%. Challenges faced by smes Mentoring Advocacy Even today, most small business in India are set up by first generation entrepreneurs. They often have a product or service idea, some money, a zest to hard work but limited knowledge about markets, Government or bank procedures, cash flows or how to manage labour. This is where mentoring a hand holding support becomes crucial. At times, this comes from an individual such as friend, relative, an NGO or a parent unit. This is episodic and unable to meet the vast requirement which the country has. This is sought to be institutionalized through extension/outreach efforts of central and state Governments. Trained manpower is made available for this task, right down the district levels, to act as the friend, philosopher and guide. These resource persons guide in setting up a evit, making it commercially viable, interacting with financial institutions and understanding markets, as well as the impact of globalisation with advancements in it. There is a strong more towards linking SMEs with bigger commodity or supply chain and providing acceptable quality and delivery schedules. The Central Governments agency for the task, the Small Industry Development Organisation, has accordingly moved away from its pre-reform regulatory to a direct promotional role of hand holding, advocacy and facilitation. This encompasses the legislative support put in place, fiscal incentives and protection from unequal competition. Credit Credit is the lifeline of business. Small businesses lack access to capital and money markets. Investors are unwilling to invest in proprietorships, partnerships or unlisted companies. As risk perception about small businesses is high. So is the cost of capital, institutional credit, when available, requires collateral which in turn makes the owner of the unit even more vulnerable to foreclosure. Credit guarantee funds which assist lending institution in advancing loans or mutual guarantee systems involving common guarantees from a group of people have not emerged in a significant manner. Unit finances comes under severe stress whenever an occasional event such as a large order, rejection of consignment, inordinate delay in payment occurs. The common stereotype about a banker lending an umbrella in sunshine and wanting it back as soon as it rains, gets reinforced in their dealing with small enterprises. It is, therefore, not surprising, that small enterprises prefer to first tap own resources or loans from friends and relatives and theres look for external finance. In India, many of small manufacturing enterprises do not access bank finance and only about 16% of total bank credit finds its way to the sector. Despite being a priority sector for lending, small manufacturing enterprises get just about 8% of their annual turnover as working capital requirements, as against normative requirements of 20%. Even for this, cost of credit is high. The problem is recognized and is sought to be addressed through various ways: Establishment of ISO 9000 certified, specialized SSI bank branches in districts/clusters. Directive for working capital finance @ 20% of annual normative turnover. Waiver of collateral requirements upto Rs. 0.5 million. Setting up of a credit Guarantee Trust to cover loans upto Rs. 2.5 million. Composite loans from a single agency upto Rs. 2.5 million. A national equity fund for equity to SSI units at 5 percent service charge Technology As mentioned earlier, small enterprises are often regarded for their labour intensity and the capability to work with local resources. In the part, this has often led to less emphasis on technology. Run of the mill technology coupled with functional packaging and inadequate finishing have at times led to small sector products being labeled as being of poor or substandard quality. This has a cascading impact on competitiveness. As small enterprises realize the need to link up with large ones, they are having a relook at technology options which would improve productivity, effectiveness and competitiveness. While sourcing technology, small business need to concentrate on the following essential issues: Information about Technology For small units information about technology options is often through word of mouth or from a visit to an advanced unit. With the advent of internet, new vistas are opening up through electronic journey catalogue downloads and advanced search facilities. The technology bureau for small enterprise promoted with the assistance of the UN offers access to databases and information on technology. Technology intervention in clusters offers near by units an opportunity for a look and feel of advanced technology entrepreneurs are also assisted to participate in overseas trade fairs to update tem with latest worldwide. Tool rooms, testing centres, production-cum-process centres and workshops also assist in this task. Actual procurement of technology Barriers to import technology, technology transfer issues, vendor capability, after sales support, import procedures impede procurement. In India, the Asia Pacific Centre to Transfer of Technology promotes match making between buyer and seller and facilities procurement through escort services. Encouragement to import of capital goods has also helped. Finance for Technology upgradation Small enterprises look to external sources of funding for upgrading technology as withdrawing money from business entails its own costs. In India, a technology upgradation and modernization fund and a hire purchase scheme attempts to meet this requirement. These are however, funds at normal lending costs. A new scheme called the credit linked capital subsidy scheme, for reducing the cost of funds, has now been put into place. Market Access In todays world, small enterprises can hardly match the adventising support or distribution reach of a large corporation. In India, small units sell best in limited or neighbourhood markets or when they are meeting a low volume specialized demand which no large player can effectively caterto. Increasingly, now the endeavour is to build the marketing activity of small units around their competitive advantage i.e., products which are labour intensive, items which cater to niche markets, low volume high margin products, sub assembly tasks, outsourcing jobs and ancillarisation. Sub-contracting exchanges are being established through Government and Industry associations to promote such interface. After sales service for imported products, AMCs on electronic equipment, reverse engineering (to the extent that it is WTO compatible) are the other areas being encouraged, sophisticated marketing is a task best left to large players. Small enterprises in India are realizing that the term â€Å" marketing† perhaps implies different things to different people for new SME businesses, head on competition with established giants makes little sense. Infrastructure Small units have traditionally operated from homes or a neighborhood work shed. Slowly, they began moving out and clustering together wherever electricity, water, raw materials, markets or labour were easier to access. Policy makers in India had anticipated the need for suitable infrastructure five decades ago and began a programme for setting up industrial estates. Non-assessment of economic viability, tardy implementation and poor maintenance due to drying up of funds affected these adversely. Later in the post reform period, the problem was sought to be addressed by setting up of such estates exclusively for small business. Almost 50 such estates have been set up. Because of their better infrastructure such as roads, telecommunication, power, effluent treatment plants, power, banks, watch ward, and reasonable cost, they have proved to be popular with small manufacturing for factory accommodation, allotment of sheds on hire purchase as well as outright sale etc. A concerted move h as also now been initiated for upgrading existing estates. Globalisation The globalisation of trade commerce has been given a push by agreements in the WTO and changed the business environment. It has therefore become necessary to sensitise SMEs about these changes and prepare them for the future. In India, a number of steps have been taken in this regard. Apart from setting up a WTO cell in the nodal ministry, 28 sensitization workshops were conducted across the country. Workshops have also been held on intellectual property rights and bar coding. Monitoring of imports in specific sectors where SMEs hae a significant presence and initiation of anti-dumping action where dumping was noticed, are the other steps taken in this respect. Procedures Government and bank procedures coupled with inspections remain a major hurdle in growth of small units. There are over 60 central, state and local laws which regulate small businesses in the areas of labour, factory maintenance environment, municipal bye laws, taxation, power etc. These require the maintenance of as many as 116 registers and forms. To enforce these, there is an army of inspector who visit units leading to harassment, delay, obstruction and increase in cost of production. Many small units are one man shows and cannot satisfy the letter of the law. The streamlining of such rules and regulations has become necessary if the creative genius of Indian entrepreneurs is to be fully unleashed. Some state governments have exhibited initiative in this regard. The Central Government has initiated a study to enact a single law for small businesses. This enactment should ease the situation considerably. Exit Mechanism Like products, Industries too have life cycles. There are industry segments which have seen their best days. Similarly, there are individual units where no amount of additional funds will help. Their bank loans have become bad and non performing. A sound exit policy which also safeguards labour interests has therefore, become necessary. It is anticipated that as of 1998, over Rs. 3.8 billion were locked in sick/weak units. An exit policy would help fresh circulation of a significant amount. The first steps in this regard have been taken recently by Indias central bank where by one time settlement of dues as on 31 March, 1997 was allowed. The results have been encouraging. Strategy Interventions for Revitalisation and Growth Significant charges in economic environment are being heralded in by the WTO. The removal of QRS has led to increased competition with imports. Many sectors of industry are facing competition from Chinese or Taiwanese imports within the country or from Bangladesh Srilanka or Nepal in export markets. It is the belief of the Indian Government that promotion and not protection is the answer to the issues of survival and growth. Thus, while reservation of items for exclusive production continues, the focus must now be on strengthening capabilities. This implies a holistic look at the concerns of industry. As part of this, the following strategic interventions have been initiated Easing access to general credit Introduction of options of limited partnership and factoring Subsiding cost of finance for upgrading technology Industry specific technology upgradation programmes Fund for developing and accessing overseas markets for export Expanding reach of infrastructure programmes Ushering in a regime of self certification in lien of inspections for various regulations Interventions in the future require that hurdles to growth are removed. They must encourage a seamless movement from small to medium to large. The Indian Government, therefore, is working on a new vision for the SSI sector through a flexible approach and a motivated team. The advocacy role of Government now involves new dimensions such as building up and arguing cases before the world trade body or dispute redressal for a, articulating needs of small enterprises before decision makers and other agencies. Credit is increasingly being made available at international rates. Technology upgrades at both the cluster and the individual level are being assisted. Cluster level technologies will be at Government cost with only user charges recovered credit guarantee scheme has been put in place if our market has opened up to due to WTO, we need to enable our small units established foot holds in new markets opened up for then by globalisation. Thus, along with improving quality, they are being given the opportunity of over seas travel, conducting market surveys, test marketing etc. The existing industrial centres are being revamped by involving industry associations with some government assistance and finally a migration from sunset industries to sunrise industries is being encouraged through a comprehensive and graceful exit policy, which balances interest of labour with those of the owners. Conclusion The singular contribution of SMEs is on account of their unique characteristics. Their role in economic activity is manifest in both tangible and intangible ways. If this contribution is to be sustained, then their uniqueness needs to be nurtured in an overt and explicit manner. The Indian experience has shown that it is possible to design targeted interventions be they area specific like clusters or be they sector / sub-sector or product-specific. Other countries, be they Asian or OECD, also have policies which aim at similar support. The need of the hour is for us to learn from each other, drawing upon experiences and identity best practice policies. These in turn have to meet local conditions and circumstances. A one size fits all approach will not work. Nevertheless, there can be no two opinions about the priority that SME policies deserve for achieving the socio-economic goal of employment growth and social justice, along with the individual aspirations. Recent Government Policies and Measures In addition to the growth potential of the sector and its critical role in the manufacturing and value chains, the heterogeneity and the unorganised nature of the Indian MSMEs are important aspects that need to be factored into policy making an Analysis of SMEs in India Analysis of SMEs in India What are SMEs? Small and medium enterprises (also SMEs, small and medium businesses, SMBs, and variations thereof) are companies whose headcount or turnover falls below certain limits. The lack of a universal definition for SMEs is often considered to be an obstacle for business studies and market research. Definitions in use today define thresholds in terms of employment, turnover and assets. They also incorporate a reasonable amount of flexibility around year-to-year changes in these measures so that a business qualifying as an SME in one year can have a reasonable expectation of remaining an SME in the next. The thresholds themselves, however, vary substantially between countries. As the SME thresholds dictate to some extent the provision of government support, countries in which manufacturing and labor-intensive industries are prioritized politically tend to opt for more relaxed thresholds. Definition of SMEs in Indian context The MSMED Act 2006, which came into force w.e.f. 02/10/2006, defines the Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises. As per the Act, the activities are classified into Manufacturing and Service Category. Initially, the MSMED Act 2006 had not defined the ‘Services Sector and RBIs guidelines were awaited. However, subsequently RBI have defined the services sector and the activities that can be covered under the SME sector. The following chart indicates the threshold investment levels for both Manufacturing sector (INVESTMENT IN PLANT MACHINERY) and Services sector (INVESTMENT IN EQUIPMENT) for the above three categories of Manufacturing and Services Enterprises : While calculating the investment in plant and machinery/equipment referred to above, the original price thereof shall be taken into account,irrespective of whether the plant and machinery/equipment are new or second hand. In case of imported machinery/equipment, the following duty/charges/costs shall be included in calculating their value: Import Duty (not to include miscellaneous expenses such as transportation from the port to the site of the factory, demurrage paid at the port); Shipping Charges; Customs Clearance charges; and Sales Tax or Value-added Tax. Cost of the following plant machinery/equipments etc would be excluded:; equipments such as tools, jigs, dies, moulds, and spare parts for maintenance and the cost of consumable stores; installation of plant machinery; research and development and pollution control equipments; power generation set and extra transformer installed by the enterprises as per the Regulations of the State Electricity Board; Bank charges and Service Charges paid to the National Small Industries Corporation or the State Small Industries Corporation; Procurement or Installation of cables, wiring bus bars, electrical control panels (not mounted on individual machines) Oil circuit breakers or miniature circuit breakers which are necessarily to be used for providing electrical power to the plant and machinery or for safety measures; Gas producer plants; Transportation charges (other than sales tax or value-added tax and excise duty) for indigeneous machinery from the place of their manufacture to the site of the enterprise); Charges paid for technical know-how for erection of plant machinery; Such storage tanks which store raw materials and finished products only and are not linked with the manufacturing process; Fire-fighting equipment; and Such other items as may be specified, by notification from time to time. In case of Service Enterprises, the original cost to exclude furniture, fittings and other items not directly related to the services rendered. Land and Building would also not be included while computing the machinery/equipments cost. SME would be meant to include Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). The above definitions of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises would be in place of the existing definitions of Small Medium Industries and SSSBEs/Tiny Enterprises. Micro Enterprises would include Tiny Industries also. Small Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Small Scale Industries (SSIs). Medium Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Medium Industries (MIs). Small Enterprises (Services) and Medium Enterprises(Services) would mean other Small Medium Enterprises. Thus, SME Advances would be categorised as under: All advances to segments viz. Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in the Manufacturing sector irrespective of sanctioned limits, (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers), and Advances to Services Sectors such as Professional Self-Employed, Small Business Enterprises, and Small Road/Water Transport Operators and other enterprises, engaged in providing/rendering of services, conforming to the above investment criteria and -enjoying borrowing/non-borrowing facilities with the Bank (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers). Those enterprises exceeding the investment ceilings would be categorized as Large Enterprises and be outside the purview of SME. The sanctioned limits would no longer be the criteria determining the status as micro or small or medium enterprises in these cases. Reserve Bank of India has since reviewed the definition on Priority Sector and have issued revised guidelines on lending to Priority Sector vide their Master Circular dated 2nd July, 2007. As per this circular Retail Trade is excluded from the activities classified as SME. (Source: www.bankofindia.com) Importance of SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the backbone of all economies and are a key source of economic growth, dynamism and flexibility in advanced industrialized countries, as well as in emerging and developing economies. SMEs constitute the dominant form of business organization, accounting for over 95% and up to 99% of enterprises depending on the country. They are responsible for between 60-70% net job creations in Developing countries. Small businesses are particularly important for bringing innovative products or techniques to the market. Microsoft may be a software giant today, but it started off in typical SME fashion, as a dream developed by a young student with the help of family and friends. Only when Bill Gates and his colleagues had a saleable product were they able to take it to the marketplace and look for investment from more traditional sources. SMEs are vital for economic growth and development in both industrialized and developing countries, by playing a key role in creating new jobs. Financing is necessary to help them set up and expand their operations, develop new products, and invest in new staff or production facilities. Many small businesses start out as an idea from one or two people, who invest their own money and probably turn to family and friends for financial help in return for a share in the business. But if they are successful, there comes a time for all developing SMEs when they need new investment to expand or innovate further. That is where they often run into problems, because they find it much harder than larger businesses to obtain financing from banks, capital markets or other suppliers of credit. Boosting industrial growth By enhancing existing capacities, and by delivering cost-efficient goods and services as per the requirements of the local markets, SMEs have been driving industrial growth. Inspiring Consumption and Social Change SMEs play a defining role by offering reasonable, yet revolutionary goods and services to cater to the changing market requirements. Currently, SMEs have made its presence felt in areas like education, medical care, transportation, entertainment and local infrastructure development. Minuscule investment SMEs need low capital investment, in terms of per unit of output Increased Employment Opportunities SMEs generate both direct and indirect employment opportunities, in 2006-07, for instance, for every ten million rupees invested by the SME sector spawned employment opportunities for over 150 people. However, the same amount of investment carried out by the overall economy generated employment for just 37. 4 people. As per Government statistics in 2007-08, SMEs generated employment for 31.25 million people. Fuelling the local economy SMEs make use of natural resources and domestic skills to cater to the domestic market. The growth of SME sector also helps in socio-economic upliftment as it generates employment opportunities for untapped masses, living in urban and rural regions. Discourages migration to urban areas SMEs are synonymous for entrepreneurship. And the best part being setting up an SME doesnt include much risk. If SMEs generate employment opportunities in rural and semi-urban areas, migration to urban areas can be stemmed to a great extent. Transition from Agriculture Economy to Service-oriented one SMEs can play a crucial role in achieving the transition from a dominant agricultural economy to a service oriented economy, akin to Japan. Japans agricultural workforce has gone done from 68 percent to 4.9 percent, in case of United States, from 44 percent to 9 percent. Further, Indian agriculture sector can no longer generate extra employment opportunities to meet the requirements of the ever-growing population. In such a situation, only SMEs can come to the nations rescue. SME in the global scenario Even in the global scenario SMEs have always played a crucial role in their respective countrys economy. International comparisons reveal that SMEs create the majority of jobs. In the USA, nearly half of the private workforce is employed in small firms, of which three-fifth have less than five employees. In Japan, 78 percent of jobs are generated by SMEs. The same sector in Korea accounts for 99 percent of all manufacturing enterprises and 69 percent of employment in this sector. Therefore, SMEs must play a central role in the countrys employment strategy. This will require modification of policies and programmes to level the playing field, improve availability of credit, increase productivity, raise quality consciousness and competitiveness, and enhance job quality. Recent experiences of different countries in the context of globalisation also demonstrate that SMEs are better insulated from the pressures generated by the volatility of world trade and capital markets. They are more resistant to the stresses, and more responsive to the demands of the fast-changing technologies and entrepreneurial responses. Indeed, they are observed to be a very important vehicle for new technology adoption and entrepreneurial development. Ensuring the competitiveness of the SMEs is important as it would help in overall growth of manufacturing sector as also the national economy. The Indian Context The micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) sector contributes significantly to the manufacturing output, employment and exports of the country. It is estimated that in terms of value, the sector accounts for about 45 per cent of the manufacturing output and 40 percent of the total exports of the country. The sector is estimated to employ about 42 million persons in over 13 million units throughout the country. Further, this sector has consistently registered a higher growth rate than the rest of the industrial sector. There are over 6000 products ranging from traditional to high-tech items, which are being manufactured by the MSMEs in India. It is well known that the MSMEs provide the maximum opportunities for both self employment and jobs after agriculture. Recognizing the contribution and potential of the sector, the definitions and coverage of the MSE sector were broadened significantly under the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006 which recognized the concept of â€Å"enterprise† to include both manufacturing and services sector besides, defining the medium enterprises. For collecting and compiling the data for the MSME sector (including khadi, village and coir industries), the Fourth All India Census of MSMEs with reference year 2006-07, is being conducted in the country. The Census will provide the first database on the MSME sector after the enactment of MSME Development Act, 2006. PERFORMANCE OF MSEs As per the quick estimates of 4th All-India Census of MSMEs, the number ofenterprises is estimated to be about 26 million and these provide employment to an estimated60 million persons. Of the 26 million MSMEs, only 1.5 million are in theregistered segment while the remaining 24.5 million (94%) are in the unregistered segment. The State-wise distribution of MSMEs show that more than 55% of these enterprises are in 6 States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Further, about 7% of MSMEs are owned by women and more than 94% of the MSMEs are proprietorships or partnerships. In view of the MSME sectors role in the economic and social development of the country, the Government has emphasized on its growth and development. It has taken various measures/initiatives from time to time which have facilitated the sectors ubiquitous growth. No discussion on MSMEs can be complete without a full treatment of the unorganized sector in which ent erprises are typically established through own funds or funds obtained through non-institutional sources, they lack managerial bandwidth, do not have established channels for marketing and are centered around a single traditional technology. More than 94 percent of MSMEs are unregistered, with a large number established in the informal or unorganized sector. The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) defines unorganized sector as enterprise employing less than 10 workers. It has estimated such enterprises at 58 million with employment generated of 104 million persons. Of these, more than half the workers are classified as ‘self-employed. A large segment in this universe of self-employed consists of those who are engaged in non-farm activities. This segment predominantly consists of own account enterprises, i.e., where there are no hired workers and are run by self with or without the help of unpaid family members. The own account enterprises can be distinguished into those running within households and those outside the households. The household enterprises operate on the basis of family labour organizing production on its own, acquire its own raw material, use its own machinery and tools and market its products. Apart from own account enterprises, this segment also consists of enterprises having hired workers between 2 to 9. Very often, these enterprises are located in clusters but function independently without inter-firm linkages. The Office of the DC (MSME) provides estimates in respect of various performance parameters relating to the Sector. The time series data in respect of the Sector on various economic parameters, is incorporated in the following Table: MSEs Performance: Units, Investment, Production, Employment Exports The figures in brackets show the % growth over the previous year. Projected COMPARISON OF THE MSE SECTOR WITH THE OVERALL INDUSTRIAL SECTOR: The MSE sector has maintained a higher rate of growth vis-à  -vis the overall industrial sector as would be clear from the comparative growth rates of production for both the sectors during last five years as incorporated in the Table given below: Comparative Growth Rates CONTRIBUTION OF MSEs IN THE GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) EMPLOYMENT IN MSE SECTOR The total employment from the MSE sector (including SSSBEs) in the country as per the Third All India Census of MSEs with reference Year 2001-02 was 249.33 lakh numbers. The units operating with fixed premises are treated as MSEs. As per the estimates compiled for the year 2007-08, the employment was 322.28 lakh persons in the sector. The share of MSEs in the total employment among units engaged in manufacturing and services is around 34.93%. Challenges faced by smes Mentoring Advocacy Even today, most small business in India are set up by first generation entrepreneurs. They often have a product or service idea, some money, a zest to hard work but limited knowledge about markets, Government or bank procedures, cash flows or how to manage labour. This is where mentoring a hand holding support becomes crucial. At times, this comes from an individual such as friend, relative, an NGO or a parent unit. This is episodic and unable to meet the vast requirement which the country has. This is sought to be institutionalized through extension/outreach efforts of central and state Governments. Trained manpower is made available for this task, right down the district levels, to act as the friend, philosopher and guide. These resource persons guide in setting up a evit, making it commercially viable, interacting with financial institutions and understanding markets, as well as the impact of globalisation with advancements in it. There is a strong more towards linking SMEs with bigger commodity or supply chain and providing acceptable quality and delivery schedules. The Central Governments agency for the task, the Small Industry Development Organisation, has accordingly moved away from its pre-reform regulatory to a direct promotional role of hand holding, advocacy and facilitation. This encompasses the legislative support put in place, fiscal incentives and protection from unequal competition. Credit Credit is the lifeline of business. Small businesses lack access to capital and money markets. Investors are unwilling to invest in proprietorships, partnerships or unlisted companies. As risk perception about small businesses is high. So is the cost of capital, institutional credit, when available, requires collateral which in turn makes the owner of the unit even more vulnerable to foreclosure. Credit guarantee funds which assist lending institution in advancing loans or mutual guarantee systems involving common guarantees from a group of people have not emerged in a significant manner. Unit finances comes under severe stress whenever an occasional event such as a large order, rejection of consignment, inordinate delay in payment occurs. The common stereotype about a banker lending an umbrella in sunshine and wanting it back as soon as it rains, gets reinforced in their dealing with small enterprises. It is, therefore, not surprising, that small enterprises prefer to first tap own resources or loans from friends and relatives and theres look for external finance. In India, many of small manufacturing enterprises do not access bank finance and only about 16% of total bank credit finds its way to the sector. Despite being a priority sector for lending, small manufacturing enterprises get just about 8% of their annual turnover as working capital requirements, as against normative requirements of 20%. Even for this, cost of credit is high. The problem is recognized and is sought to be addressed through various ways: Establishment of ISO 9000 certified, specialized SSI bank branches in districts/clusters. Directive for working capital finance @ 20% of annual normative turnover. Waiver of collateral requirements upto Rs. 0.5 million. Setting up of a credit Guarantee Trust to cover loans upto Rs. 2.5 million. Composite loans from a single agency upto Rs. 2.5 million. A national equity fund for equity to SSI units at 5 percent service charge Technology As mentioned earlier, small enterprises are often regarded for their labour intensity and the capability to work with local resources. In the part, this has often led to less emphasis on technology. Run of the mill technology coupled with functional packaging and inadequate finishing have at times led to small sector products being labeled as being of poor or substandard quality. This has a cascading impact on competitiveness. As small enterprises realize the need to link up with large ones, they are having a relook at technology options which would improve productivity, effectiveness and competitiveness. While sourcing technology, small business need to concentrate on the following essential issues: Information about Technology For small units information about technology options is often through word of mouth or from a visit to an advanced unit. With the advent of internet, new vistas are opening up through electronic journey catalogue downloads and advanced search facilities. The technology bureau for small enterprise promoted with the assistance of the UN offers access to databases and information on technology. Technology intervention in clusters offers near by units an opportunity for a look and feel of advanced technology entrepreneurs are also assisted to participate in overseas trade fairs to update tem with latest worldwide. Tool rooms, testing centres, production-cum-process centres and workshops also assist in this task. Actual procurement of technology Barriers to import technology, technology transfer issues, vendor capability, after sales support, import procedures impede procurement. In India, the Asia Pacific Centre to Transfer of Technology promotes match making between buyer and seller and facilities procurement through escort services. Encouragement to import of capital goods has also helped. Finance for Technology upgradation Small enterprises look to external sources of funding for upgrading technology as withdrawing money from business entails its own costs. In India, a technology upgradation and modernization fund and a hire purchase scheme attempts to meet this requirement. These are however, funds at normal lending costs. A new scheme called the credit linked capital subsidy scheme, for reducing the cost of funds, has now been put into place. Market Access In todays world, small enterprises can hardly match the adventising support or distribution reach of a large corporation. In India, small units sell best in limited or neighbourhood markets or when they are meeting a low volume specialized demand which no large player can effectively caterto. Increasingly, now the endeavour is to build the marketing activity of small units around their competitive advantage i.e., products which are labour intensive, items which cater to niche markets, low volume high margin products, sub assembly tasks, outsourcing jobs and ancillarisation. Sub-contracting exchanges are being established through Government and Industry associations to promote such interface. After sales service for imported products, AMCs on electronic equipment, reverse engineering (to the extent that it is WTO compatible) are the other areas being encouraged, sophisticated marketing is a task best left to large players. Small enterprises in India are realizing that the term â€Å" marketing† perhaps implies different things to different people for new SME businesses, head on competition with established giants makes little sense. Infrastructure Small units have traditionally operated from homes or a neighborhood work shed. Slowly, they began moving out and clustering together wherever electricity, water, raw materials, markets or labour were easier to access. Policy makers in India had anticipated the need for suitable infrastructure five decades ago and began a programme for setting up industrial estates. Non-assessment of economic viability, tardy implementation and poor maintenance due to drying up of funds affected these adversely. Later in the post reform period, the problem was sought to be addressed by setting up of such estates exclusively for small business. Almost 50 such estates have been set up. Because of their better infrastructure such as roads, telecommunication, power, effluent treatment plants, power, banks, watch ward, and reasonable cost, they have proved to be popular with small manufacturing for factory accommodation, allotment of sheds on hire purchase as well as outright sale etc. A concerted move h as also now been initiated for upgrading existing estates. Globalisation The globalisation of trade commerce has been given a push by agreements in the WTO and changed the business environment. It has therefore become necessary to sensitise SMEs about these changes and prepare them for the future. In India, a number of steps have been taken in this regard. Apart from setting up a WTO cell in the nodal ministry, 28 sensitization workshops were conducted across the country. Workshops have also been held on intellectual property rights and bar coding. Monitoring of imports in specific sectors where SMEs hae a significant presence and initiation of anti-dumping action where dumping was noticed, are the other steps taken in this respect. Procedures Government and bank procedures coupled with inspections remain a major hurdle in growth of small units. There are over 60 central, state and local laws which regulate small businesses in the areas of labour, factory maintenance environment, municipal bye laws, taxation, power etc. These require the maintenance of as many as 116 registers and forms. To enforce these, there is an army of inspector who visit units leading to harassment, delay, obstruction and increase in cost of production. Many small units are one man shows and cannot satisfy the letter of the law. The streamlining of such rules and regulations has become necessary if the creative genius of Indian entrepreneurs is to be fully unleashed. Some state governments have exhibited initiative in this regard. The Central Government has initiated a study to enact a single law for small businesses. This enactment should ease the situation considerably. Exit Mechanism Like products, Industries too have life cycles. There are industry segments which have seen their best days. Similarly, there are individual units where no amount of additional funds will help. Their bank loans have become bad and non performing. A sound exit policy which also safeguards labour interests has therefore, become necessary. It is anticipated that as of 1998, over Rs. 3.8 billion were locked in sick/weak units. An exit policy would help fresh circulation of a significant amount. The first steps in this regard have been taken recently by Indias central bank where by one time settlement of dues as on 31 March, 1997 was allowed. The results have been encouraging. Strategy Interventions for Revitalisation and Growth Significant charges in economic environment are being heralded in by the WTO. The removal of QRS has led to increased competition with imports. Many sectors of industry are facing competition from Chinese or Taiwanese imports within the country or from Bangladesh Srilanka or Nepal in export markets. It is the belief of the Indian Government that promotion and not protection is the answer to the issues of survival and growth. Thus, while reservation of items for exclusive production continues, the focus must now be on strengthening capabilities. This implies a holistic look at the concerns of industry. As part of this, the following strategic interventions have been initiated Easing access to general credit Introduction of options of limited partnership and factoring Subsiding cost of finance for upgrading technology Industry specific technology upgradation programmes Fund for developing and accessing overseas markets for export Expanding reach of infrastructure programmes Ushering in a regime of self certification in lien of inspections for various regulations Interventions in the future require that hurdles to growth are removed. They must encourage a seamless movement from small to medium to large. The Indian Government, therefore, is working on a new vision for the SSI sector through a flexible approach and a motivated team. The advocacy role of Government now involves new dimensions such as building up and arguing cases before the world trade body or dispute redressal for a, articulating needs of small enterprises before decision makers and other agencies. Credit is increasingly being made available at international rates. Technology upgrades at both the cluster and the individual level are being assisted. Cluster level technologies will be at Government cost with only user charges recovered credit guarantee scheme has been put in place if our market has opened up to due to WTO, we need to enable our small units established foot holds in new markets opened up for then by globalisation. Thus, along with improving quality, they are being given the opportunity of over seas travel, conducting market surveys, test marketing etc. The existing industrial centres are being revamped by involving industry associations with some government assistance and finally a migration from sunset industries to sunrise industries is being encouraged through a comprehensive and graceful exit policy, which balances interest of labour with those of the owners. Conclusion The singular contribution of SMEs is on account of their unique characteristics. Their role in economic activity is manifest in both tangible and intangible ways. If this contribution is to be sustained, then their uniqueness needs to be nurtured in an overt and explicit manner. The Indian experience has shown that it is possible to design targeted interventions be they area specific like clusters or be they sector / sub-sector or product-specific. Other countries, be they Asian or OECD, also have policies which aim at similar support. The need of the hour is for us to learn from each other, drawing upon experiences and identity best practice policies. These in turn have to meet local conditions and circumstances. A one size fits all approach will not work. Nevertheless, there can be no two opinions about the priority that SME policies deserve for achieving the socio-economic goal of employment growth and social justice, along with the individual aspirations. Recent Government Policies and Measures In addition to the growth potential of the sector and its critical role in the manufacturing and value chains, the heterogeneity and the unorganised nature of the Indian MSMEs are important aspects that need to be factored into policy making an

journeyhod A Journey into the Heart of Darkness :: Heart Darkness essays

A Journey into the Heart of Darkness   The white man is evil, or so says Joseph Conrad in his novel Heart of Darkness, which describes the colonial transformation of the symbolically angelic African wilderness into an evil haven for the white man.   The novel presents a psychological journey into the core of evil or "heart of darkness" in one's own mind, as he or she progresses through the jungle. The reader follows Marlow, the novel's narrator, along such a journey.   His psychological changes as he approaches the heart of darkness are evident, as the reader observes, in his views of the African natives, lying and Kurtz.     Marlow is an honest man.   He sets out on a genuine search for answers to his questions of exploration of the unknown "when (he) was a little chap" (Conrad 64).   Marlow was drawn to a certain place on the world map, called the Congo "the biggest, the most blank, so to speak---that (he) had a hankering after" (Conrad 64). Upon first entering the mouth of the Congo River, Marlow declares his stance on lies and those who lie.   [He believes that lying in the worst thing for a person.] He vows never to lie in his life.   After reading Kurtz's report about his progress down the Congo, Marlow finds that Kurtz lied, and in part loses all the respect he ever had for Kurtz.   However, Marlow still continues to pursue him.   Marlow continues his journey up the Congo River, penetrating further and further into the heart of darkness.   In the process, Marlow reverts back to his innate state to survive, whether or not that means going against his principles.   Finally, 200 mi les later, Marlow meets Kurtz, who is the object of his psychological desire, only to find him very ill.   After Kurtz's death, Marlow finds himself transformed into a person he thought he would never become, a liar.   Marlow lies to Kurtz's intended about Kurtz's last words when he returns to Europe. After being consumed by the heart of darkness, Marlow throws away his previous values as he reverts into a savaged, almost evil state of mind.     Though honest, Marlow is a prejudiced man; he is the epitome of colonialism.   Going into the Congo, Marlow views the natives as prehistoric evils in desperate need of white influence and civilization. Throughout the physical journey, Marlow is confronted with the natives time and time again, seeing them chained as slaves, living in a village and attacking his own steam boat.

Anorexia Nervosa cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by any single model of abnormality

Anorexia is a condition disputed by psychologists in attempts to find a cause for the problem. Anorexia is when an individual chooses to emaciate themselves in order to be thin. There are two main types of reasoning behind such behaviour. The biological and psychological explanation. Of course, there are many forms of branched out explanations within these, and the two of which that I shall be exploring are the genetic justification (in terms of biological) and the behaviourist approach, for the psychological relation. Biological psychologists believe that human behaviour and what makes us do what we do, is all down to genes. With the new advance in recent science, genes are becoming a more popular reasoning to many psychological issues. Anorexia nervosa for one. The genetic approach proclaims that the cause for anorexia is to do with genes: i.e. the genetic and inherited factors we have within our relations. The idea is that should one family member suffer from an eating disorder, then there is a higher chance that another family member (preferably those who share the same, or like genes) would contract an eating, or another obsessive-compulsive disorder. Holland et al, a group of psychologists, lead a study on the genetic link of anorexia nervosa in 1984. They perused a sample of 34 pairs of twins and one set of triplets, where at least one twin in each pair suffered from anorexia. They found a higher concordance rate of 55% for the 16 monozygotic twins (who share 100% of the same genes) than for the 14 pairs of dizygotic twins, (who share 50% of the same genes) with a concordance rate of only 7%. The results, in imprecise terms, suggested that there was a genetic link between family members suffering from anorexia nervosa. But on closer examination of the study, we can find many other reasons, which may not be genetic, for these findings. For example, the sample amount was very small. This is a major flaw in any experiment, as the sample size often needs to a representative size, which can be extended to the whole of society, but 35 pairs of twins is an extremely small amount. Furthermore, the environmental influences were not considered in this experiment, and so the higher concordance rates for the monozygotic twins could be because they are treated more alike than the dizygotic twins. This is part of behaviourism of which I shall study later on. In terms of reasonability, the genetic link between family members suffering from anorexia seems to be weak. Though it can be part of the reason or perhaps only accurate for only a very few, it cannot be wholly responsible for everyone who suffers from this eating disorder. A problem with this reasoning as being the â€Å"answer† is that there is then no blame of self. Because the condition is ‘purely' biological, the individual is then rendered hopeless and vulnerable to the disorder, as they are not in control of what is in their genes. It can also provide an ‘excuse' so that the subject is unable, or unwilling to become better. Psychologically, behaviourists look at how the environment and outside influences have shaped and created an individual. Predominantly in western cultures, the size of â€Å"beauty† in terms of celebrity and media has dramatically decreased in the last couple of decades. Marilyn Monroe, said to be one of the most beautiful woman of the time was a dress size 14. As the years gone by, we find that the dress size of â€Å"beauty† has gone down, and now, catwalk models are size 8's and lower. It seems that the more rich and advanced we become, the higher our standards are, for skinnier people. The media is a major factor in influencing the ordinary people of our society. Behaviourists believe that this is one of the main causes for people (particularly those with lower self-esteem) to develop eating disorders, in order to become more like the person in the magazine. Because of this, people are often seen as ‘beautiful' when they are thin. This puts pressure on people who perhaps may have been teased and felt self-conscious about their self-image. Once the individual begins to lose weight, it is often found that the criticism stops, and compliments are received in its place. This can then become a habit, and is known as â€Å"Classical conditioning†. They learn to associate being thin with feeling good about themselves. â€Å"Operant conditioning† happens when the praise and admiration from others reinforces their eating habits and causes them to want to lose more weight. This form of explanation is very logical in certain aspects, but there are a few things that, should this theory be true, does not correspond appropriately. For example, once the sufferer begins to lose too much weight and is then the cause for concern, why is it that once the compliments stop, the sufferer still desires to lose weight? The compliments were associated to feeling good and losing weight. The compliments are no longer there, and so one would assume the feeling good should have dissolved, and due to operant conditioning, the sufferer would learn to break the habit. It is true that operant does sometimes work on promoting weight gain in some people, by if this concept was accurate, then why doesn't everyone with anorexia respond in the same way? â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by any single model of abnormality† It is true that anorexia cannot be the result of one cause, as we have looked at two versions of reasoning behind the condition and both explanations still leave gaps where logic or situation does not fit. Each explanation gives a valid justification to anorexia, but the problem still cannot be solved by one account of psychology. The answer may be that it is a mixture of perhaps several models of abnormality, but the fact is that anorexia nervosa is too complex and too different in every case to be the epitome of one explanation.

How Has Texting Affected Teenagers

How has texting affected teen literacy? This is one question asked by many, and not always answered. After doing much research, I have come up with an answer to this question. There are pros as well as cons to texting when it comes to teens. The pros of texting are that texting allows teens to communicate with each other more often. Another pro is that they have the capability to call a parent when in a situation where alcohol or drugs are involved. While texting can have some pros, it also comes with it's own set of cons.One con is that texting is leading to anxiety, stress, distraction in school, and sleep deprivation. All of this added together can cause teens to have falling grades in school. Another, con is that texting can distract teens while they are driving. Texting and driving has become one of the most common causes of car accidents. One common thing you can see in schools is texting in class. One other thing you will see is cheating during tests. Some schools have banned cellphones during tests but this has not helped at all.These rules only affect the teens that are willing to break rules. The amount of teens who own a cell phone in the world is enormous. In 2011, 77% of the teenage population owned a cell phone, which is very similar to the 75% presented in 2009. Due to the unlimited texting plans presented by various mobile carriers texting has increased substantially in popularity. According to the Nielson Company, American Teenagers sent and received and average of 2,272 text messages per month in the fourth quarter of 2008.This totals to about 80 messages a day. In 2010, this amount of 2,272 text messages in the fourth quarter of 2008, grew to an amount of 6. 1 trillion text messages in 2010. This goes to show how much texting has grown in popularity and is a growing issue that effects teens everywhere. As texting becomes more popular, more and more teens begin to have falling grades in school and also putting themselves in danger while drivin g.If parents started to be more watchful of how much their children text, they could help them keep control of their texting. Works Cited Baker,Lisa. â€Å"Cell Phones and Their Positive Effects on Youth† eHow 15. April. 2012 Starovoit,Veronica. â€Å"How Does Text Messaging Affect the Ability to Write & Speak in English? † eHow 16. April. 2012 Lenhart,Amanda. â€Å"Overall cell ownership steady since 2009† PewInternet 19. Mar. 2012 Hafner,Katie. â€Å"Texting May Be Taking a Toll on Teenagers† The New York Times 25. May. 2009