Who Were the Ronin of Feudal Japan

A ronin was a samurai warrior in feudal Japan without a master or lord — known as a  daimyo.  A samurai could become a ronin in several different ways: his master might die or fall from power or the samurai might lose his masters favor or patronage and be cast off. The word ronin literally means wave man, so the connotation is that he is a drifter or a wanderer. The term is quite pejorative, as its English equivalent might be vagrant. Originally, during the Nara and Heian eras, the word was applied to serfs who fled from their masters land and took to the road — they would often turn to crime to support themselves, becoming robbers and highwaymen. Over time, the word was transferred up the social hierarchy to rogue samurai. These samurais were seen as outlaws and vagabonds, men who had been expelled from their clans or had renounced their lords. The Path to Becoming a Ronin During the Sengoku period  from 1467 to approximately 1600, a samurai could easily find a new master if his lord was killed in battle. In that chaotic time, every daimyo needed experienced soldiers and ronin did not remain masterless for long. However, once Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who reigned from 1585 to 1598, began to pacify the country and the Tokugawa shoguns brought unity and peace to Japan, there was no longer any need for extra warriors. Those who chose the life of a ronin would usually live in poverty and disgrace. What was the alternative to becoming a ronin? After all, it was not the samurais fault if his master suddenly died, was deposed from his position as daimyo or was killed in battle. In the first two cases, ordinarily, the samurai would go on to serve the new daimyo, usually a close relative of his original lord.   However, if that was not possible, or if he felt too strong a personal loyalty to his late lord to transfer his allegiance, the samurai was expected to commit ritual suicide or  seppuku. Likewise, if his lord was defeated or killed in battle, the samurai was supposed to kill himself, according to the samurai code of  bushido. This was how a samurai preserved his honor. It also served the societys need to avoid revenge killings and vendettas, and to remove freelance warriors from circulation. Honor of the Masterless Those masterless samurais who chose to buck the tradition and continue living fell into disrepute. They still wore the two swords of a samurai, unless they had to sell them when they fell upon hard times. As members of the samurai class, in the strict feudal hierarchy, they could not legally take up a new career as a farmer, artisan, or merchant — and most would have disdained such work.   The more honorable ronin might serve as a bodyguard or a mercenary for wealthy traders or merchants. Many others turned to a life of crime, working for or even operating gangs that ran brothels and illegal gambling shops. Some even shook down local business owners in classic protection rackets. This sort of behavior helped to solidify the ronins image as dangerous and rootless criminals. One major exception to the terrible reputation of the ronin is the true story of the  47 Ronin  who chose to remain alive as ronin in order to avenge their masters unjust death. Once their task was accomplished, they committed suicide as required by the code of bushido. Their actions, although technically illegal, have been held up as the epitome of loyalty and service to ones lord. Today, people in Japan use the word ronin semi-jokingly to describe a high school graduate who has not yet enrolled at a university or an office worker who does not have a job at the moment.

Gun Control Of The United States - 2378 Words

Gun Control in America has been a major debate since 1995. The debate is never ending because there are so many situations that have surfaced, requiring different policies and exceptions. Guns in America have not only provided protection for some citizens but they have also wounded and killed many citizens. Our laws allow for possession of registered guns with a gun license but it is easy to purchase a gun without showing a legal license. We must remember that although guns are used to kill, they are not the root of the problem. Guns are sometimes used as a result of being mentally unstable. We cannot necessarily say if there were tighter gun control laws there would be less gun related fatalities but we can say that it will result in a better understanding of why firearms other problems that are considered dangerous. In 2008 the United States Supreme Court ruled the Second Amendment of The U.S. Constitution gives a citizen an individual right to possess a firearm for personal lawful uses such as self-defense. This ruling has woke the nationwide gun control issue, leaving those for gun control in the dust while those anti-gun control, such as The National Rifle Association, took a massive step towards their final wanted destination, the ability to have guns without worrying if they are in violation of any laws. The Gun Control debate has directly and indirectly affected most citizens of The United States, although we cannot remedy what happened in the past we can work toShow MoreRelatedGun Control Of The United States1698 Words   |  7 Pagesshootings that has happened throughout the Unites States has created a great divide among Americans on what should our nation do to prevent further shootings from happening. Many people believe that forcing new laws on how people purchase weapons should requ ire background checks. Gun Control in the United States of America is a topic that has had lots of criticism and support by many citizens. The critical people of this topic believe that the guns do not kill people, it is the people that kill peopleRead MoreGun Control And The United States1569 Words   |  7 PagesIn the United States gun control is a big controversy that has been blown out of proportion the last few years. Anything that has to do with guns in the news, reporters say it is the guns fault. Gun control laws are being changed and morphed for the new society that we live in today. What gun control really means is a group of laws to control the selling and use of guns.(1). Statistics have proven that most people want more control on guns. Many surveys have shown that the benefits of gun controlRead MoreGun Control Of The United States Essay1412 Words   |  6 PagesGun Control Proposal Gun control is a highly controversial topic in the United States. There are many people who are for gun control - people who want to have stricter laws to make it so criminals and other dangerous people can’t obtain a firearm. But, there are also the people who disagree with gun control laws and believe there should be a more lenient gun control to help people defend themselves during risky situations. Many gun control laws have been passed for many years. While many have beenRead MoreGun Control And The United States929 Words   |  4 PagesGun control has been a debated, revisited and revised issue for more than a century in the United States. Recently, after several mass shootings in the United States, gun violence issues are; yet again, renewed and in the forefront for the United States. This paper will consist of insight on gun violence in the United States and the newly imposed gun control policies by President Obama; along with, the arguments for and against the new policies and what roles both the formal and informal actorsRead MoreGun Control Of The United States1166 Words   |  5 PagesSince America’s birth, guns have played a large part in it’s society. Citizens of the United States have used firearms to protect the land they love, and their families. They even use them for engaging activities such as hunting and sport. Though firearms may seem to have a commonplace in society, weighing the rights and liberties of citizens against the safety and welfare of the public has always been a delicate process. In the United States, gun control is a of heated issue that has two sides.Read MoreGun Control And The United States988 Words   |  4 PagesGun Control Reassessment in the United States Imagine this: you are in World History class at your high school almost falling asleep learning about Ancient China. It is a normal day for you and your classmates, until you hear an announcement from the principal. You expect the typical lockdown drill, but this situation is far from typical. A man with a gun breaks into your school. BANG! Several of your classmates are killed before this man can be controlled. You survive, but live the rest of yourRead MoreGun Control Of The United States1704 Words   |  7 Pagesshootings that has happened all through the Unites States has made an great divide among Americans on what ought our country do to keep further shootings from happening. Numerous individuals trust that forcing new laws on how people buy weapons should require background verifications. Gun Control in the United States of America is a topic that has had lots of criticism and support by numerous citizens. The critical people of this topic trust that the guns don t murder peo ple, is that people kill peopleRead MoreGun Control in the United States1306 Words   |  6 Pages Gun Control in the United States has gone out of control. The United States should enforce laws to not allow any guns in a house hold in order to reduce violence and crime in the country. Reducing the rate of crime in the United States, controlling big weapons, taxing ammunition, and gun collection can help make this happen. Gun Control can make this country a safer environment to live in. Gun Control has obviously gone out of control in the recent years. Look around, they are everywhere. ReducingRead MoreGun Control And The United States1435 Words   |  6 PagesGun Control For gun control, there should be some requirements for the people to take in order to own a gun for themselves. Throughout the United States, gun control should allow people to still have guns; however, the citizens should go through some changes to ensure safety throughout the nation. Gun control has given some helpful ideals before that would help the people understand the responsibilities of their guns. They want to make sure that these laws maintain to progress as a better solutionRead MoreGun Control And The United States886 Words   |  4 PagesGun Control in the United States On December 14, 2012, a gunman walked into Sandy Hook Elementary in Newtown, Connecticut, and killed 20 children and six adults. This tragedy shook the nation and made Americans wonder, how could this have been prevented? Recently published research suggests mass shootings are becoming more common in the United States. Harvard University researchers said in October 2014 that a mass shooting has occurred every 64 days, on average, since 2011, compared with every

A Great Man Free Essays

January 4, 1643 is the time when our great mathematician and physicist, Isaac Newton, was born. His hometown was Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England. His father was a noble farmer but unfortunately he died before Isaac Newton was born. We will write a custom essay sample on A Great Man or any similar topic only for you Order Now After his father’s death, his mother was married again, thus he was left with his grandparent’s custody. He went to Cambridge University to study in 1661. During that year, he became interested in various fields including mathematics. He was also become interested in optics, astronomy and physics but in 1665 a plague epidemic came in the University that forces Newton to go back to his hometown. During his two years in Cambridge, he already thought about gravity and in fact began to study optics and mathematics particularly calculus. After the plague, he returned to Cambridge. He became a second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. In 1668, he made a reflecting telescope which attracts the attention of the scientific community and eventually he became a member of the famous Royal Society. His passion in optics and science was manifested by his series of experiments in the composition of light which resulted to the discovery of the various behavior of light. He published â€Å"The Opticks† which consists of concepts of light and color1704. Aside from â€Å"The Opticks†, he also published several paper works in history, theology and alchemy. One of his greatest works is the â€Å"Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica† (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). This works is all about how force and gravity were applied to all objects in the universe. In 1689, he was elected to become the MP for Cambridge University and in 1696; he became the warden of the Royal Mint in London. In 1703, he was elected as the President of the Royal Society. Before he died, he has contributed a lot of concepts, discoveries, theories and ideas on different field such as optics, physics, astronomy and mathematics. His interest in mathematics was first manifested during his undergraduate year in Cambridge University. During this time he became accustomed to various mathematical works of several mathematicians like Descartes and John Wallis. His works in mathematics include the proof and improvement of the so called â€Å"binomial theorem†. Newton was not first to discover the formula ((a + b) n) behind the binomial theorem. In fact an Islamic mathematician namely al-Karaji made a binomial coefficient table up to n=5. Also, another Muslim mathematician namely Omar Khayyam established a method of finding nth roots using the binomial expansion. Also in Europe, a century ago, Blaise Pascal has presented his concepts of how to generate binomial coefficients. Those discoveries by various mathematicians, including Pascal, were only applicable to positive values of n. Newton on the other hand, discovered the formula for (a+b)n that would work for any real. He arrived at this formula: (a+b)n = an + nan-1b + [n(n-1)an-2b2] / 2! + [n(n-1)(n-2)an-3b3] / 3! + . . . + bn His finding about the binomial expansion was; for values of n element of the interval (-1, 1), the formula (a+b)n generates an infinite, converging series. Newton’s discovery of binomial expansion/series was a great help in calculating pi ( ). As we all know, a binomial series recurs repeatedly which becomes a very useful instrument for mathematical analysis. The method of fluxions was Newton’s greatest discovery in calculus. In 1671, two years before Leibnitz established his own concepts about calculus, Newton started to study fluxions which is basically include concepts, notations and ideas on Calculus. His works on calculus was well established during 1665 in which he presented symbolisms for partial derivatives which is now an important method in calculus. The idea of binomial theorem and knowledge about infinite series gave Newton a solid idea on derivatives and integrals of functions. As a result of his studies, he showed that integral and derivatives can be expressed as a binomial expansion of infinite series particularly the power series. Newton discussed and solved problem using Method of fluxions. The problems include differentiation of algebraic function, integration of algebraic functions using inverse method, first-order differential equations, optimization problem which includes the locating the maxima and minima of a given function and lastly drawing tangent line of functions at any point. Moreover, with the aid of fluxion, Newton developed a geometric idea of â€Å"first and last† ratio of lines. In 1660, Newton became interested to study the nature of light and vision. In fact because of his fascination on light, he actually stared directly on the sun and poked the sides of his eyeballs by a small knife to observe activities and behavior of light and which risked blinding himself. These kinds of wild experiments and other sensible ones gave way to the formulation of theories about nature, behavior of the spectrum of light. Furthermore, Newton made its great leap in the scientific world when he published his â€Å"New Theory about Light and Colors† in the Royal Society’s journal. As a result of his various experiments, he forced to conclude that Light is a heterogeneous mixture of refrangible rays meaning light is not a homogenous entity. When he passed a white light on a glass prism, he observed that spectrum of colors were formed in opposite walls which explained the property of light known as refraction. In line with the study of optics, he constructed a reflecting telescope, the first, to overcome the distortions of chromatic dispersion. One of his greatest contributions in the field of physics was his Law of Universal Gravitation. Isaac Newton made a comparison of the moon acceleration to the object’s acceleration on Earth. He believed that gravitational forces were accountable for the acceleration of each other. He made a vital conclusion that gravity depends mainly on distance. From his comparison, he concluded that the gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and other objects is inversely proportional to distance between the center of the earth and the object. In other words, if the object is near the center of the earth, the gravitational force of attraction is high and vise versa. But there are other factors, aside from distance that affects the magnitude of the gravitational force. Newton knew that mass is the other factor that affects the gravity or acceleration of an object. Another important conclusion was drawn and that the gravitational force exerted by the earth on the object is directly proportional to the mass of the object. Newton’s law of universal gravitation was applied outside earth, hence gravity is really universal. With this finding, Newton was included in the gravity hall of fame. Also, with the aid of Law of Universal Gravitation, the three laws of motion were formulated. The formulation of these three laws, particularly the second law of motion allows numerical computations of how velocity changes when force acts on it. Newton left several manuscripts and paper works about alchemy and chemistry. Most of these were part of books, bibliographies, dictionaries and many other sources however; we could count in our fingers the original one from them. He began his experiments in 1669. He wanted to know the truth about alchemical obscurity and mysticism and the nature of and structure of all matter that he believed that God created all of these. Newton’s notable contribution on chemistry is his publication of an incomplete theory of chemical force. One of his written works is Opticks, which is first written in English. This was his most remarkable works on theories in light and color. In Opticks, he proved and explained through experiment and logical reasoning and which includes numerous axioms, theorems, propositional statements and lots of definitions. He integrated his mathematical reasoning in his works and eventually Opticks turned out to be the basis of all experimental physics. The Opticks contained findings that light like sound is composed of waves. He obtained several criticisms from other scientist like Robert Hooke and Christian Huygens. But Newton insisted that light was composed of discrete particles that move in straight lines. Furthermore, Newton combined the ideas that light is a particle and at the same time a wave. Again, from this result he received criticisms from Hooke and other scientists. Principia, his most remarkable, notable work and considered his masterpiece was divided in three books. The first book of the Principia contains eight definitions and three axioms. The three axioms were later known as the Three Laws of Motion. These laws were the main parts of Book I of Principia and in fact all discussions of Newton in his Book I were based on these. In the Book II of Principia, he tacked motion of fluids and other bodies. On this book, he questioned Descartes and Kepler ideas about the vortex theory. In his Book III which was subtitled the System of the World, he showed how he arrived on his famous Law of Universal Gravitation. The Principia was considered the most influential and greatest scientific piece during Newton’s era. His laws of motion and universal gravitation were his two most popular discoveries but Newton still believes that there is a supreme being that governs and makes these phenomena possible and that is God. Newton was a religious person. In fact he has written more on religion than in natural science. As a summary, Newton was a remarkable scientist in the history of the world making remarkable scientific advancements and discoveries in mathematics, physics, astronomy, optics, alchemy, chemistry and even in the religion. In mathematics, he contributed a lot of ideas on analytical geometry, algebra and calculus. His discovery of the binomial formula and method of fluxions were very significant in the advancement of various topics in mathematics. In physics, astronomy and optics, he made several findings and discoveries like the theories of light, Universal gravitation, laws of motion, ideas on fluid mechanics and invention of reflecting telescope. His book, â€Å"Opticks†, became the basis of many experiments in physics because of the employment of scientific method in his own experiments. Newton also has some contribution in alchemy and chemistry although some written works were in question. Newton was a great mathematician, a great physicist, a great astronomer and a great believer of God. Although all his works were scientific, he did deny the existence of a divine being. He was really a religious person and I think this was the reason why Sir Isaac Newton was successful in his career. We owed a lot to Newton so let us thanked him for his great contribution in humanity. Work Cited â€Å"Hatch, Robert A. † 1999. Sir Isaac Newton. 1 December 2007, http: // www. clas. ufl. edu/users/rhatch/pages/01-Courses/current-courses /08sr-newton. htm. â€Å"Henderson, Tom†. 2007. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. 1 December 2007, http://www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/gbssci/phys/Class/circles/ u6l3c. html. Newton, Sir Isaac. 1 December 2007, http://www. phy. hr/~dpaar/fizicari/xnewton. html. Sir Isaac Newton’s Invention of the Calculus Fluxions and Infinite Series. 1 December 2007, http://www. polybiblio. com/bud/19178. html. â€Å"Smoller, Laura. † June 2001. Applications: Web-Based Precalculus. 1 December 2007 http://ualr. edu/lasmoller/newton. html . How to cite A Great Man, Papers

Apartheid System Essay Example For Students

Apartheid System Essay Sirens blared, voices screamed and shouted, wood cracked and windows shattered, children bawled, dogs barked and footsteps pounded7. This scene is from the autobiography Kaffir Boy written by Mark Mathabane. That is one of the scenes he had to live through every morning in apartheid South Africa. Apartheid is a policy of segregation and economic discrimination against non-whites. Apartheid system affected every black person living in South Africa during that time. It forced blacks to become slaves in their own country. The system forced blacks to live in unsanitary environments, work-degrading jobs and carry passes, and receive limited education. Blacks and whites were living in different sections during apartheid. While whites lived comfortable lives in their extravagant mansions and driving their fancy cars blacks had to live in a disease infested neighborhood with no electricity or in door plumbing. Approximately one thousand people lived in shacks that were squeezed together in a one-mile zone. The alleys were filled with dirt, rats, human wasted and diseases. Blacks lived in houses made of old whitewash, a leaking ceiling of rusted Inx propped up by a thin wall of crumbling adobe bricks, two tiny windows made of cardboard and pieces of glass, a creaky, termite-eaten door low for a person of average height to pass throughand a floor made of patches of cement earth31. Living in such a degrading environment kills self-esteem, lowers work ethic and leaves no hope for the future. Degrading low paying jobs were the only jobs available for black men. Women worked as servants for whites. Men had to work in mines, clean up toilets or work as police officers abusing their own people. Shit-men-belligerent immigrant workers who, because of what they did, were looked upon by many black people-went about the communal lavatories picking up buckets of excrement83. Working as servants for whites was one of the better jobs for black women. Blacks could not walk around freely in their own country without carrying a passbook. Without a passbook, blacks could not work or travel. The passbook had to be paid for by black families who did not have any money. They were arrested and put in jail if their passbooks were not in order. Blacks were trapped with no way out, not even the hope of education. The education facilities provided for black children were under horrible conditions. The schools were over crowded, there was a major shortage of teachers, and the children were constantly beaten for not paying their school fees. Blacks only received enough education to enable them to work for whites. They did not have nearly as much of an opportunity as the white children. We were so tightly packed into that narrow courtyard that some children fainted from excessive heat and stuffiness136. half a dozen children fainted and were revived, some only to find again.136. Black children were not given the proper opportunity, and environment to succeed.

Perrines Literature Structure, Sound, Sense 11th Ed. (Short Stories) Essay Example

Perrines Literature Structure, Sound, Sense 11th Ed. (Short Stories) Paper Commercial Fiction Fiction intended solely to entertain. Literary Fiction Written with serious artistic intentions with hopes to broaden, deepen, and sharpen the readers awareness of life. Plot Sequence of incidents or events through which an author constructs a story. Conflict A clash of actions, ideas, desires, or wills. Protagonist The central character in a conflict. Antagonist Any force arranged against the protagonist. Suspense The quality in a story that makes readers ask Whats going to happen next? or How will this turn out? Mystery An unusual set of circumstances for which the reader craves an explanation. Dilema A position in which the protagonist must choose between two courses of action, both undesirable. Surprise Ending An ending that features a sudden, unexpected turn or twist. Happy Ending A happy ending. Unhappy Ending An unhappy Ending. Indeterminate Ending An ending in which no definitive conclusion is reached. Artistic Unity Everything is relevant and contributes to the meaning. Plot Manipulation A plot that is unjustified by the situation or characters. Relies too heavily on chance. Also known as Deux Ex Machina. Deux Ex Machina Latin for god from machine. See: Plot Manipulation. Chance The occurrence of an event that has no apparent cause in previous events or in predisposition of character. Coincidence Is the chance occurrence of two events that may have a peculiar correspondence. Characterization For literary fiction writers, the most important element of their art. Direct Presentation Characters are described straight out by exposition or analysis or by another character. Indirect Presentation The characters are described through their actions. Motivation Where characters words and actions spring from Flat Character Usually have one or two predominant traits; they can be summed up in a sentence or two. Round Character Complex and many sided; they have the three-dimensional quality of real people. Stock Character Stereotyped figures who have recurred so often in fiction that we recognize them at once. Static Character Remains essentially the same person from the beginning to the end of the story. Developing Character There is distinct change of character, personality, or outlook. Epiphany A moment of spiritual insight into life or into the characters own circumstances. Theme Is the controlling idea or its central insight. The unifying generalization about life stated or implied by the story. Point of View Who tells the story. Omniscient Point of View The story is told in the third person by a narrator whose knowledge and prerogatives are unlimited. Third Person Limited Point of View The story is told in the third person, but from the viewpoint of one character in the story. First Person Point of View The author disappears into one of the characters, who tells the story in the first person. Objective Point of View The narrator disappears into a kind of roving sound camera. Literary Symbol Something that means more than what it suggests on the surface. Allegory A story that has a second meaning beneath the surface, endowing a cluster of characters, objects, or events with added significance; often the pattern relates each literal item to a corresponding abstract idea or moral principle. Fantasy Transcends the bounds of known reality. Sarcasm Is simply language one person uses to belittle or ridicule another. Verbal Irony Is a figure of speech in which the speaker says the opposite of what he or she intends to say. Dramatic Irony The contrast between what a character says or thinks and what the reader knows to be true. Irony of Situation Usually the most important kind for the fiction writer, the discrepancy is between appearance and reality, or between expectation and fulfillment, or between what is and what would seem appropriate. Sentimentality Stories that try to elicit easy or unearned emotional responses. Editorialize Comment on the story and, in a manner, instruct us how to feel. Poeticize Use an immoderately heightened and distended language to accomplish their effects.

Manufacturing Research Paper

Manufacturing Research Paper Introduction The main aim of the research paper is to ascertain the extent of participation, the types of alliances used and the problems faced by these firms which are basically into developing and manufacturing telecommunications, transport, information, lethal platforms, and components for the operation of these platforms for military organisations. Exposure to decreasing defence budgets of nations, global competition, and open market practices, has made the environment of the defence equipment manufacturing firms, which have constraints for technology transfers and use of popular corporate strategies due to the very nature of their business, unpredictable, uncertain, and a threat to their survival. In such a situation, strategic alliances are a good option for these firms. But given the political and commercial constraints, the best practices of the alliance formation may not be relevant to these firms. This paper looks at how these firms are practising strategic alliances. The Defence Industry Environment It appears that the issues facing the defence industry and the new emerging constraints have attracted a lot of attention of contemporary authors, but the responses to these issues and their effects are somewhat still unclear to the industry. Since the end of the cold war in early 1990s, the trend in Europe is that of declining defence expenditures, shutting down of many such defence equipment manufactures and the reduction of employees in this sector. Two other important factors that influence the sector are the decreasing control of the state in arms manufacturing and the break up of the military industrial complexes. Also, due to reduction in Russian threat, the customer base has reduced, but competition has increased. This has been highlighted by the example of the Aerospace industry, wherein only four models exist, but every contract is vital for the company’s survival. This condition has led to increasing alliances even between competitors in an attempt to prevent or rev erse poor performance. The authors have adopted Cosentino’s seven symptoms of change in the defence industry as more costly programs, cuts in military expenses, growing Asian markets, reducing government support, demand for return on investment, new competition, and demanding customer requirements. The globalisation of arms market and the diminishing national control over arms supplies has resulted in competitive disadvantages for firms which have persisted with purely national procurement and manufacturing strategies. The authors have summarised the reasons for the changes in the defence industry as declining budgets of governments, demand for greater accountability in defence procurement, growing demand for latest and best technology, declining market size, and increasing competition from global players. The authors observe that the conditions, which existed previously, have resulted in conditioning of employees of these firs to aberrant business practices. But this disadva ntage is negated by their common cultural backgrounds. Types of Strategic Alliances Strategic alliances are agreements between firms to cooperate with each other in some way for varying lengths of time. What differs is the degree of co-operation, structure and duration. Strategic alliances have gained popularity across many industries and the literature available or the studies conducted are not industry specific, but mostly cross-sectoral. There are many ways of classifying strategic alliances. They can be classified into four categories based on the nature of allying firms as pro-competitive (inter industry), non-competitive (intra industry, non competing), competitive (direct competitors), and pre-competitive (unrelated industries). They can also be classified as horizontal (between competitors), vertical (between members of supply chain), or diagonal (between firms in different industries). In any case, what is common to all these alliances is transfer of knowledge, which may or may not be equal in both directions for the allying firms. Strategic alliances inclu de collaboration, joint ventures, consortia, licensing agreements, offset agreements and essentially any form of co-operation or exchange of resources between two or more partners. Drivers of Strategic Alliance Formation The drivers of strategic alliance formation include global economic downturns, new economic opportunities, the need for survival within the firm and the collective fear of risk inherent in business. Also, the process of selection of the right type of alliance is a mix of selecting suitable ones and eliminating unsuitable ones. The process is also dependent on the dominant drivers during the alliance formation and the tailoring of the type of alliance is done to suit the needs and goals of the allying partners. The primary driver of strategic alliances seems to be globalisation, or the advent of global competition, due to which such alliances are observed commonly across various industries like automobile, pharmaceutical, aerospace, etc on a global level. What needs to be examined is whether firms are adopting this as defensive business strategy for survival, or proactive strategy to reduce competition. Motives of Strategic Alliance Formation The motives pertain more to specific sectors or firms within the industry as opposed to drivers, which create an overall need for change within the industry. It is necessary for the motives to fit into a strategic plan. Examples of motives are acquisition of technology, or resources, or attaining economies of scale, which seems relevant to the defence industry. If they do not fit into the strategic plan, they may pose hurdles in further strategic moves. Strategic Alliance Life Cycles The authors have adopted the concept from Doz and Hamel, who have developed a process for alliance formation which is classified under four headings as operational scope, configurations and contributions, alliance governance, and alliance interface. These are not unambiguous and the whole process can be looked at as a map of alliance formation, with different kinds of alliances having different starting and ending points. Learning, Trust and Culture Various researches have proved that a lot depends on the inter-relation of these three parameters in a strategic alliance. During the period of alliance, the firm that learns more from its partner, stand to gain more from the alliance. Hammel refers to this as internalisation of partner’s skills. Such internalisation is primary motive of many firms in entering alliances and on termination of the alliance, they are still successful in their motive. The most attractive resources to internalise are leading edge technology and management techniques. For such alliances, the structure, culture, and communication patterns are not as important as the learning process. The authors touch upon the issue of trust by mentioning that the best practices of interaction between senior executives of partnering firms, shared values, effective communication, and a multi-disciplinary effort between the firms is responsible for good trust building. Culture and its compatibility, especially in pooli ng of resources for research and development work is also an important aspect of strategic alliance, relevant to defence manufacturing industry. Defence Manufacturing and Strategic Alliances Not surprisingly, there is a tremendous growth in the strategic alliances in defence manufacturing industry as a result of the factors mentioned above. However, one factor that goes against this phenomenon is the sovereignty of operations as a result of the state determining supply and demand of this industry, which is a strategic economical d military asset. The advantages of such alliances have been adopted from Draper as acquisition of technological assets, lowering of unit costs, and vertical development of supply chain. The objectives of the nation to maintain its proprietary technology are contrast with the objectives of joint ventures, which are to gain technological resources for the second tier countries, and to gain access to cheaper manufacturing and sourcing for the first tier countries, besides the joint objectives of larger market access and amortisation of defence research. An option to full blown cross border mergers is collaboration which has the advantage of sharing of non-recurring costs, interoperability, economies of scale, lesser chances of scraping of projects amongst others. But the chief deterrent is the issue of sharing workload in proportion to investment made, leading to excessive capacities, complex industrial arrangements, and impedance to free technology transfer. Alliance Life Cycles Within the Defence Manufacturing Industry Due to the decline of number of firms in this industry, the firms lay emphasis on reputation and experience in strategic alliances as well as the technology to choose their partners from the limited pool. In the first phase of alliance formation, the opportunities from the business venture are checked for fit with the firm’s strategic plan. In the second stage, a cost benefit analysis is done. The further life cycle is very well demonstrated with a diagram, which highlights stages like Partner selection, Agreement on goals, Development of relationships, Binding initial agreement, and Ensuring equality. Also, this industry is characterised by typically high research costs and the risks were formerly covered by the large national defence budgets. But with reducing budgets and the demand for cutting edge semiconductor technology, this risk has now blown beyond proportion for firms to handle it alone. An unsuccessful bid may result in a financial hiccup whereas an uncompetitive pr oduct would result in shutting down of a large part of production units. Results of Empirical Investigations The formation of strategic alliances varies between the sectors within the industry due to varying corporate culture. The levels of cross border cooperation vary between sectors, with electronics leading the pack and ordnance and small arms lagging far behind. The structure of alliance depends on the size of the partners, with the SMEs preferring licensing agreements and the larger players preferring collaboration, for commercial and governance reasons. On the other hand, joint ventures allow the marriage of complementary competencies and provide an opportunity to gain contracts from the partners’ markets. In partnerships involving partners of unequal sizes, friction is caused due to different perceptions of life cycle and time. The development of the structure in the defence manufacturing industry depends very much on the position of the firms within the industrys hierarchy and its ability to select the best structure to fit into its overall group structure. Yet this is very much customer driven and depends on the governments, which are the major customers. If the goal of the alliance is knowledge transfer, there is a lot of communication at lower levels in the student teacher mould, and this diminishes with time. Also, it depends on the sizes of the firms. The nationalities of firms induce superiority or inferiority complexes in partners based on history. Relationship development is important and is demonstrated with the help of the example that though UK and US have compatible cultures and one would expect successful strategic alliances between them, that is not the case and there arise many misunderstandings between partnering firms. This also demonstrates the importance of cultural compatibilities and the need for the senior executives of the partnering firms to make conscious efforts to internationalise and remove cultural interpretative difficulties. Legality of the agreement is given particular emphasis because of the high cost of cutting edge te chnology and the sensitive nature of the industry. The agreements ensure that the resources promised by the partners are released, that the potential demands are not inflated and the technology is not sold to a rival government to be used against the firm’s nation. Firms use this initial period of agreement formation to try to identify any hidden agendas on the part of the prospective partner by analysing what the partner is looking for and why. Issues of equality of control and risk are sensitive to handle and have importance only in equity based alliances. In a working alliance, communication gaps are a major problem, owing to difference in language, culture and management styles. The degree of communication required depends on the type of alliance, being maximum in joint ventures and least in licensing. The older executives tend to neglect the market dynamics, owing to an orientation towards protected industry as it used to be. Also, it can be hypothesised that the degree to which an alliance is formally reviewed depends on the size of the firm. Contrary to the literature, which says that alliances in this industry are formed for operational reasons like gaining economies of scale and share risk, the research finds that the alliances are formed for strategic reasons like maintaining market share and market power. Discussion The authors say that contrary to the belief, globalisation is not the primary driver for alliances in the defence manufacturing industry, which is consolidating. They point out that the high technology, which is tools for many industries for operations, is the product for this industry and its expenses and relationships are well documented. To gain the advantages of controlling the partnership and the prevention of the partner’s internalisation of its competencies, the firms in this industry prefer collaboration, which are also easier to manage, and can be structured to accommodate legal changes to initial agreements, like workshare proportions, sales estimates, etc, including change of partners. The nature of the strategic alliances also depends on the nationality of firms, with the US firms showing significant orientation for collaborations and licensing agreements. Also, the US firms indulge in a lot of alliances and most of them are to gain technology which they have not a lready developed. But they later impose restrictions such that market development for their partners, using the US technology becomes impossible. UK, France and Germany are next in the number of alliances, with UK- France partnerships being primarily in electronics and Germany’s involvement in land vehicles, aircrafts, etc. The authors also point out that the effect of commercial practices on corporate culture needs to be investigated. The authors end with a note on convergence of mutual perceptions. The give examples of The US firms perceiving European short tem partners as less beneficial in the long run and UK experiencing competition from other European countries to partner with US. The authors are quick to point out that the future of European markets is difficult to predict and that a lot would depend on Government support and influence. Personal Opinion The drivers for change in the defence manufacturing industry have rightly been identified. In today’s world, no country has the economy to sustain long term war, except the US. Owing to this, the market for the industry in question is definitely reducing. The other observation is about government control over this industry. With the primary intention of building efficiencies in this industry and to incorporate accountability, the states are making conscious efforts to privatise the industry. As a result, the support which the industry had to cover financial risks is fast disappearing. Also, the sensitivity of the industry, makes it difficult for the players to operate in the open economy environment and to indulge in technology transfer. All these key issues have definitely made strategic alliances a key strategic policy. This also the reason why the industry is consolidating. Also, the issue of costs of research and development is another prime driver. But what needs a deeper thought is the way the companies exercise this strategic tool. For this analysis, the concept of life cycle of the alliance is very useful. But a detail study of some of the failures need to be done in the context of the lifecycle. What kind of partnership can go wrong at what stage with what kind of mistakes needs to be found out. The strategies for success, in this case lie in searching the reasons for failure. Also, the prices of most of these equipments is prohibitively high. So the strategic alliances for firms belonging to nations, which do not have the potential to buy the equipment, is a sensitive issue. It need to be found that what kind of companies look for partners in such countries. Are sourcing considerations the only ones for such alliances, and the benefits derived for the smaller partner need to be looked at. The other major consideration is the influence of European Council on such partnerships. Also, the organisations like NATO should have some effect on them. Wh at needs to be found out is the stage of the lifecycle in which these factors gain importance. Also, the extent to which these factors influence is not known. Another important part is that the customers drive the decision about the kind of alliance that the partners enter into. But does this not conflict with the aim of the organisations? This a question to which answers can be provided only by scrutinising case studies of attempts to form strategic alliances. The one other important issue is the legality of the agreements. The issues involved are sensitive and the partners try to make these as watertight as possible. The effect of this on the trust and information sharing between partners is of prime importance. The transfer of knowledge and it use later on is dependent on these agreements, and the US seems to be taking complete advantage of thefact for maximum benefit. And the final point that comes to the mind is the effect of such alliances on the relations between the nations of the partnering firms. In some cases, the relations between the nations have an effect on the strength and structure of partnerships. In some cases, it is the opposite, and the relations between the nations may be based on the strengths of the partnerships. Conclusion To conclude, I would like to say that the best practices for the success of strategic alliances are based on the structure of industries. It is pretty obvious that when it comes to defence industry, the structure is significantly different from the other industries. So, the best practices in other industries may not be viable in the case of the defence industry. But the recommendable practices need to be identified to help the industry benefit from the experience of the other firms in theprocess of such strategic alliances.

SPSS data analysis in marketing field Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

SPSS data analysis in marketing field - Essay Example we also have 154 females in the 1(X32) (N) and on average, they have 128X32 with standard deviation of 10.368 X32.The last column shows the two groups Std error mean. Basing on table 2, the p value of Levenes test is 0.816.In this case, this p value is greater than 0.05 the alpha. Therefore, we will have to use the middle row of the output (‘labeled Equal variances assumed.’).So we will have to assume that the variances are equal and we need to use the middle row of the output. The labeled column ‘‘t’’, provides a calculated t value. In this case the t value is 0.667 assuming equal variance. The labeled column df provides the degree of freedom related with the test. In this case we have 445 degrees of freedom. The labeled column sig (2 –tailed) provides p value related to the t test. In this case, the p value 0.816. If p ≠¤ ÃŽ ±, then reject H0.Therefore, 0.816 is not equal or less than 0.05.So we fail to reject the null hypothesis. This means that we failed to observe a difference in the reasons to choosing the restaurant between men and women. As shown in table 3, for each dependent variable, the output shows the sample size, minimum, maximum standard deviation, standard error and confidence interval for every independent variable level (quasi) In this case, the p value of 0.466 is greater than the 0.05; we fail to reject the null hypothesis. This means that there is limited evidence that the variances aren’t equal and the variance assumption homogeneity may fit. The 2 value in the table above is the between groups degrees of freedom, 446 is within groups degrees of freedom,0.864 is the F ratio from the F column,0.460 is the p value and 16927.906 is within groups mean square estimate of variance. The last task now involves whether to reject null hypothesis. In this case the p value of 0.460 is seen to be greater than the 0.05.Therefore we fail to reject the null hypothesis. This means different distances have no influence on the

Response letter for article Video Game Violence by Mark and Keisha Essay

Response letter for article Video Game Violence by Mark and Keisha Hoerrner - Essay Example For this reason, it is necessary to consider the skills the game is trying to teach your child. If the game emphasizes on shooting, killing, robbery and other antisocial behaviors, it may not be a good idea to purchase it. Video games reward their players for various behaviors. In most violent video games, behaviors such as shooting and killing are highly rewarded with points (Anderson& Warburton, 2012). As your child continues to play these games, he is encouraged to do more of the killings and shootings in order to earn more points (Hoerrner & Hoerrner, 2006). These activities, although violent in nature, attract the biggest rewards. Since your child is still developing, it is likely that he will grow up cherishing violence. Therefore, the video game you purchase for your child will make him gravitate towards negative social action over time. Because video games increase the child’s appetite for violence, he is likely to want more of this entertainment as he grows; both in real life and in the gaming world (Gentile & Anderson, 2003). These games train children to view the world as a dangerous place in which they have to constantly look for enemies and other threats. Unfortunately, the only wa y of dealing with such threats, as promoted in these games, is through violence (Giumetti & Markey, 2007). Because of the link between video games and violent behavior, it is important for you as a parent to understand the ratings given to the various games. In the article by Mark and Keisha Hoerrner (2006), it is noted that it is the responsibility of parents and society to understand what is being told in these video games. Before making the purchase, it is necessary to check the ratings of the game you intend to buy. This will help in purchasing a video game that is appropriate to the level and age of the child. In these games, elements such as

Key Principles of Corporate Governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Key Principles of Corporate Governance - Essay Example The role of corporate governance has, therefore, become increasingly vital to the strategic management of the organization and projection of its aims and objectives in the eyes of the public and other stakeholders. Corporate governance can be broadly defined as the creation of business environment within and outside the organization that would effectively meet the challenges of the time and improve and improvise the productivity of the performance outcome. The lack of effective controls vis-Ã  -vis malpractices in accounts and auditing, security of confidential information, corrupt practices in the higher hierarchy of management, disparity in rules and regulation etc. have become crucial risks factors that have resulted in huge economic loss for its shareholders as well adversely affecting its credibility in the market. Hence, in the fast changing environment of globalization, business compulsions have become more stringent in their nature and factors like accountability, responsibility and reliability have become important pre-requisites for business to create a credible environment for their trade and investment. ‘Corporate governance framework should recognize the rights of stakeholders established by law or through mutual agreement..’ (Du Plessis, 2005, p.36). The key principles of corporate governance are described and ranked in order of importance as under: ‘Corporate disclosure to stakeholders is the principal means by which companies can become transparent’ (Solomon, 2007, p143). Thus, Corporate Governance promotes effective control measures to safeguard the interest of all its stakeholders, investors and business partners. Under the codes of corporate governance, the disclosure mainly relates to the policy of the company to disclose relevant information about its budgets, annual financial statements

Research Methods Chapter: Filipino Work Values in Education

Research Methods Chapter: Filipino Work Values in Education Chapter II METHOD OF THE STUDY The descriptive-correlation method is utilized to describe the general characteristics of the respondents in this study and to examine the existing relationship or differences between work values, job satisfaction and work performance. This method enables the researcher to make a thorough analysis of the relationship between the indicators of FWVS, JSS and the results of the Teachers’ Efficiency Rating of the respondents. Specifically, descriptive method was used to define the respondents’ dominant work values, level of job satisfaction and the level of work performance according to the different indicators given in the utilized tools. Moreover, this method is also used to describe the capacity of work values to determine the future outcomes of job satisfaction and work performance. While, correlation method was utilized to delve on the relationship between the different aspects of work values and job satisfaction, and work values and work performance. INSTRUMENTS/ TECHNIQUES To obtain the pertinent data for this study, standardized tests and evaluation tool were utilized as the main instruments. Standardized tests This study utilized the Filipino Work Values Scale Employee Edition (FWVS EE) The Filipino Work Values Scale (FWVS) is a standardized instrument designed to determine a persons work values. The scale consists of 80 items, distributed into 10 subscales. It takes approximately 15 to 20 minutes to accomplish it (Manual, 1987). The 10 subscales are the: Environmental, Familial, Intellectual – Achievement, Interpersonal, Management, Material, Occupation, Organization, Religious and Variety. This tool was rated using the Likert Scale Rating (1 – Very Unimportant, 2 – Unimportant, 3 – Neutral, 4 – Important and 5 – Very Important). This test consists of a test booklet where the general and specific directions were indicated, and a separate answer sheet to indicate the respondents’ answers. This test can be self – administered. The author sought for the permission of the owner of this tool which is attached in Appendix B. To obtain the level of the job satisfaction of the participants, Job Satisfaction Survey by Paul E. Spector was used. The Job Satisfaction Survey, JSS is a 36 item, nine-facet scale to assess employee attitudes about the job and aspects of the job. The nine facets are Pay, Promotion, Supervision, Fringe Benefits, Rewards, Co-workers, Nature of Work, and Communication which are rated from 1 or â€Å"Disagree very much† to 6 or â€Å"Agree very much.† Although the JSS was originally developed for use in human service organizations, it is also applicable in the education setting (Spector, 2001). The survey has an existing norm for teachers in Asian countries. This tool has been widely used and has existing local norm in the Philippines such as in the study conducted by Bansil (2010) in the study entitled â€Å"The relationship of job satisfaction and job performance of call center agents in outbound program† and Rosales and her colleagues (2013), â€Å"Nursesâ€⠄¢ Job Satisfaction and Burnout: Is there a connection?†.The author obtained permission from the local authors who utilized JSS in their local researches for reliability and validity purposes. The copy of the letter of permission was attached in Appendix C. Documentary Analysis The researcher obtained and analyzes the respondents work performance from the institutions previous school years work evaluation, Teachers’ Efficiency Rating. Efficiency Rating tool is a key component of employee development. It is intended to be a fair and balanced assessment of an employees performance (Claret Employee Manual, 1999). Administration. After securing permit from the school administrators, the researcher prepared the materials which are: Filipino Work Values Scale (Employee Edition) which was obtained from the author, Dr. Vicentita Cervera, and the Job Satisfaction Survey by Paul E. Spector, which was obtained from the website and was utilized upon the approval of the author. The tests were self-administered and there was no time allotment. The instructions were indicated in the booklets and answer sheets, where the respondents can readily read the instructions and understood easily. The materials were distributed during the in-service training seminar in the Audio-Visual Room (AVR) of CSQC where all the old and newly hired teachers were required to attend. The researcher was able to obtain the target respondents. The researcher was given 1 hour to conduct the administration of the tests. Other Guidance Counselors facilitated the distribution of the materials while the researcher explained the instructions where ten minutes was consumed. Fifteen to twenty minutes was allotted in answering the FWVS and another ten to fifteen minutes was given in answering the JSS. After each test, the Guidance Counselors collected the materials and proceeded to the inspection of answer sheets. Those answer sheets with incomplete responses and answer sheets of newly hired teachers were eliminated. A total of 109 qualified answer sheets were collected. The checking and scoring of the accomplished FWVS and JSS answer sheets started immediately after the data gathering and this was done for one month. The encoding of responses followed by the end of July, 2014 using the SPSS version 11.5 package. SAMPLING PROCEDURE The researcher utilized the non – probability purposive sampling technique (Rosales, 2013). This method was used based on the given criteria and specifications identified by the researcher. In this technique, the researcher based on his personal judgment in selecting the participants who best meet the purposes of his study. Ariola (2006) explains that whoever qualifies and is available is taken until the desired number of sample is attained. Specifically, stakeholder sampling (Palys, 2014) is utilized, one of the kinds of purposive sampling which is useful in the context of evaluation research and analysis of the teachers’ work values, job satisfaction and work performance, who are also involved in receiving and affected by the program that is designed according to the results. TREATMENT OF DATA Data were computed and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 11.5). Descriptive and inferential statistics were utilized to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics included weighted mean to describe the teachers’ dominant work values difference work values, extent of job satisfaction and work performance and linear regression analysis to identify the future outcome of job satisfaction and work performance based on the dominant work values. Pearson – r coefficient of correlation was utilized to determine the correlation of variables and its significance. Weighted Mean. The researcher utilized this computation to get the weighted mean scores of each work values to identify the extent of importance on each work values, criteria of job satisfaction and work performance, with a formula of: ∑x = N/ n To determine the verbal interpretation of work values, this scale was used: Mean RangeDescription 4.50 to 5.00Very Important 3.50 to 4.49Important 2.50 to 3.49Neutral 1.50 to 2.49Unimportant 1.00 to 1.49Very Unimportant To determine the verbal interpretation of the job satisfaction, this scale was used: Mean RangeVerbal Description 5.50 to 6.00Agree very much 4.50 to 5.49Agree moderately 3.50 to 3.49Agree slightly 2.50 to 3.49Disagree slightly 1.50 to 2.49Disagree moderately 1.00 to 1.49Disagree very much To determine the verbal interpretation of the respondents’ work performance, this scale was utilized: Mean RangeDescription 4.5 to 5.0Very Evident 3.5 to 4.4Evident 2.5 to 3.4Fairly Evident 1.5 to 2.4Hardly Evident 1.0 to 1.4Not Evident Pearson – r. The Pearson – r or Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) is used in determining strength of correlation or association between two or more interval or ratio data (Ariola, 2006). This treatment was used to determine the degree and the nature of correlation between work values, job satisfaction and work performance. To determine the degree of relationship that exists between the variables, the following scale was used: If r =+.70 or higherVery strong positive relationship +.40 to +.69Strong positive relationship +.30 to +.39Moderate positive relationship +.20 to +.29weak positive relationship +.01 to +.19No or negligible relationship -.01 to -.19No or negligible relationship -.20 to -.29weak negative relationship -.30 to -.39Moderate negative relationship -.40 to -.69Strong negative relationship -.70 or higherVery strong negative relationship (http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/libarts/polsci/Statistics.html) To determine the interpretation of the computed generated p – value in comparison with the level of significance, SPSS as used as shown on the scale below: ComparisonDecisionInterpretation P-value < 0.05Reject Ho Significant level of significance p-value > 0.05Accept HoNot Significant level of significance Correlation of coefficient reveals the positive (+) or negative (-) relationship between work values (x variable) and job satisfaction or work performance criteria (y variable). Positive significant relationship explains that as the x variable increases, y variable also increases, and vice – versa. Additionally, the significance of relationship of work values was based on the Ï  – value, where the computed Ï  – value

Piagets Cognitive Theory Essay -- piaget piagets psychology developme

Psychology Piaget's Cognitive Theory Cognitive development is the development of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. Historically, the cognitive development of children has been studied in a variety of ways. The oldest is through intelligence tests. An example of this is the Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient test. IQ scoring is based on the concept of mental age, according to which the scores of a child of average intelligence match his or her age. IQ tests are widely used in the United States, but they have been criticized for defining intelligence too narrowly. In contrast to the emphasis placed on a child ¡Ã‚ ¦s natural abilities by intelligence testing, learning theory grew out of work by behaviorist researchers such as John Broadus Watson and B.F. Skinner, who argued that children are completely malleable. Learning theory focuses on the role of environmental factors in shaping the intelligence of children, especially o n a child ¡Ã‚ ¦s ability to learn by having certain behaviors rewarded and others discouraged. During the 1920s, a biologist named Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development of children. He caused a new revolution in thinking about how thinking develops. In 1984, Piaget observed that children understand concepts and reason differently at different stages. Piaget stated children's cognitive strategies, which are used to solve problems, reflect an interaction between the child ¡Ã‚ ¦s current developmental stage and experience in the world. Piaget was originally trained in areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a kinetic epistemologist. He was mainly interested in the biological influences on how we come to know. He believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do abstract symbolic reasoning. Piaget ¡Ã‚ ¦s theory, first published in 1952, grew out of decades of extensive observation of children, including his own, in their natural environments as opposed to the laboratory experiments of the behaviorists. Although Piaget was interested in how children reacted to their environment, he proposed knowledge as composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new ones. Schemas are continually being modified by two complementar... ...ings different from theirs. Furthermore, they can understand situations from the viewpoints of others. Intelligence is characterized by number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, and volume. They can perform logical operations in relation to concrete external objects. They can now decipher their thinking, or focus on more than one dimension of a stimulus at a single time. They cannot solve abstract or hypothetical problems, however. Piaget ¡Ã‚ ¦s fourth and final stage, the formal operations stage, takes place from 11 or 12 to 18 and beyond. In early adolescent years, the development of the ability to reversibility and conservation to abstract, verbal, and hypothetical situations takes place. They also begin to make speculations about what might happen in the future. Adolescents are also capable of formulating and testing hypotheses, and dealing with abstract concepts like probability, ratio, and proportion. In this stage start the perception of analogies and the use of complex language forms such as metaphors and sarcasm. Teenagers can comprehend philosophy and politics and formulate theories of their own. Abstract concepts and moral values become as important as concrete objects.

Solenoids – Physics coursework

Solenoids Permanent Magnet- Magnetic Field.http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/m/a/magnetic%20field/source.html Magnets have two poles called North and South.Similar (like) magnetic poles repel. Unlike magnetic poles attract. A magnet attracts a piece of iron. The most important of the two properties of attraction and repulsion is repulsion. The only way to tell if an object is magnetised is to see if it repels another magnetised object. The strength and direction of a magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines. Field lines by convention go from North to South. A magnetic field is three-dimensional, although this is not often seen on a drawing of magnetic field lines.Electromagnets A magnetic field exists around all wires carrying a current. When there is no current the compass needles in the diagram shown line up with the Earth's magnetic field. A current through the wire produces a circular magnetic field. See what happens when there is a current in the wire. The magnetic field for a coil of wire is shown below. The magnetic fields from each of the turns in the coil add together, so the total magnetic field is much stronger. This produces a field which is similar to that of a bar magnet. A coil of wire like this is often called a solenoid.http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/physics/using_electricity/movement_from_electricity/revision/1/slideshow-1/2/An electromagnet consists of a coil of wine, through which a current can be passed, wrapped around a soft iron core. This core of magnetic material increases the strength of the field due to the coil. ‘Soft’ iron is easily magnetised, and easy to demagnetise- it does not retain its magnetism after the current is switched off. Steel, on the other hand, is hard to magnetise and demagnetise, and so it retains in magnetism. It is used for permanent magnets. The strength of an electromagnet depends on:The size of the current flowing through the coil The number of turns in the coil The material inside of the coil Heinmann physics Domains – http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/ferro.html#c4Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a long-range ordering phenomenon at the atomic level which causes the unpaired electron spins to line up parallel with each other in a region called a domain. Within the domain, the magnetic field is intense, but in a bulk sample the material will usually be unmagnetized because the many domains will themselves be randomly oriented with respect to one another. The main implication of the domains is that there is already a high degree of magnetization in ferromagnetic materials within individual domains, but that in the absence of external magnetic fields those domains are randomly oriented. A modest applied magnetic field can cause a larger degree of alignment of the magnetic moments with the external field, giving a large multiplication of the applied field.FerromagnetismIron, nickel, cobalt and some of the rare earths (gadolin ium, dysprosium) exhibit a unique magnetic behavior which is called ferromagnetism because iron (ferrum in Latin) is the most common and most dramatic example.

Philippine Airline Industry and the Environment Essays

Philippine Airline Industry and the Environment Essays Philippine Airline Industry and the Environment Essay Philippine Airline Industry and the Environment Essay Environmental management in the Philippines over these past few years has focused on regulating production industries, such as manufacturing and mining. However, there has been an increasing interest in the environmental effects of the service industry (Goedkoop, van Halen, te Riele, Rommens, 1998). And this industry comprises a variety of activities, from restaurants to hospitals to financial institutions. The service industry merits its attention because of its large size and consequently the potential for environmental impacts (both negative and positive). And one of the service industries that will be discussed in this paper is the Airline Industry. According to the International Civil Aviation Organization and the Air Transport Bureau, the aviation industry impacts the environment in a way that aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions. It also contributes to climate change and global dimming. The toxic emissions produced by airports and aircraft are chiefly six pollutants: nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, ground-level ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide (Whitelegg and Williams, 2000). These emissions have a definitive impact on the already growing problem of global warming as well as being very deadly to people exposed to them. In this study, the researchers will have to identify the positive and the negative environmental impacts that can be found in the airline industry in the local and global aspect and how could the industry minimize these negative impacts. This paper is significant because the airline industry gives a positive economic impact to the community. Business travelers are important to airlines because they are more likely to travel several times throughout the year and they tend to purchase the upgraded services that have higher margins for the airline. Airlines have also made significant progress in addressing climate change and are continuing to do so while being driven to be fuel efficient. According to the IATA, the airline industry has already improved fuel efficiency by 70% over the last four decades and new, more fuel efficient aircraft on order will replace aging, gas guzzling jets and increase fuel efficiency again by 25%. According to the report of the British Airline Pilots’ Association (BALPA), the airline industry is believed to be a â€Å"dirty† industry; that it is wasteful of resources and is responsible for the major threat of ozone depletion by the generation of greenhouse gases. But aviation, like all forms of transport, does pollute but its impact on the environment is exaggerated and the solutions put forward don’t address the environmental impact. Thus the attempt to penalize the industry and its flying public is misguided. The most damaging effect of aviation, in terms of its pollution of the upper atmosphere is best dealt with by emissions trading. This study focuses on adopting a global perspective of the Airline Industry because air transport itself operates globally and its impacts on the atmosphere, particularly those that could result in climate change, will have worldwide consequences and the Airline Industry’s contribution to the local and global environmental conservation.

Overview of the Xiongnu Nomads

Overview of the Xiongnu Nomads Xiongnu was a multi-ethnic nomadic grouping from Central Asia which existed between about 300 B.C. and 450 A.D. Pronunciation:  SHIONG-nu Also Known  As:  Hsiung-nu The Great Wall The Xiongnu were based in what is now Mongolia and frequently raided south into China. They were such a threat that the first Qin Dynasty emperor, Qin Shi Huang, ordered the construction of huge fortifications along the northern border of China- fortifications that later were expanded into the Great Wall of China. An Ethnic Quandry Scholars have long debated the ethnic identity of the Xiongnu: Were they a Turkic people, Mongolian, Persian, or some mixture? In any case, they were a warrior people to be reckoned with. One ancient Chinese scholar, Sima Qian, wrote in the Records of the Grand Historian that the last emperor of the Xia Dynasty, who ruled sometime around 1600 B.C., was a Xiongnu man. However, it is impossible to prove or disprove this claim. The Han Dynasty Be that as it may, by 129 B.C., the new Han Dynasty decided to declare war against the troublesome Xiongnu. (The Han sought to re-establish trade along the Silk Road to the west and the Xiongnu made this a difficult task.) The balance of power between the two sides shifted over the next few centuries, but the Northern Xiongnu were driven out of Mongolia after the Battle of Ikh Bayan (89 A.D.), while the Southern Xiongnu were absorbed into Han China. The Plot Thickens Historians believe that the Northern Xiongnu continued west until they reached Europe under a new leader, Attila, and a new name, the Huns.

Boundary-Less Career Concept and Implications for the Career Essay

Boundary-Less Career Concept and Implications for the Career Development - Essay Example As a business student, researcher feels that the world of business offers me exciting opportunities. What he really means by the boundary-less career regimes lies in the fact that business is on the upward move. It is always growing and expanding and not being stagnant at any point in time. For the author to look up to the future and visualize himself standing with the top management gurus, he feels pride in stating that he can relate to what they do, work and feel like. The author can relate to their respective concepts of career development and the manner in which they have taken an upward growth path. He believes that he can always contribute in a better manner towards the society if he works in a business organization because this is something that comes from within – it is naturally inclined to the researcher to act, think and feel business-mindedly. The implications that stand in the way of the author’s career development include his understanding related with the niche segments of the business and comprehension which he can attain in the wake of finding out more and more as to what exactly is happening in the local terrains and on the global front. The boundaryless career concept of business offers the researcher a range of options to start with. He could look at the retailing side of the business where channel members could mean significance for his trade. The author could look at the middle management regimes and thus present himself in line with the changing market dynamics. The researcher can offer his services in the client relationship side which offers him to interact with all sorts of customers and clients and thus open his sense of understanding with different people almost on a daily basis. The author could opt for the sales management areas and thus expand my sales vision as well as the manner under which he could get to know what is happening at the wholesalers’ ends and as to how the different chain levels interact with each other whilst setting their own standards along the line.

Does modern music negatively influence children Research Paper

Does modern music negatively influence children - Research Paper Example 77 percent of rap music that was studied referred to alcohol and drug abuse, moreover, girls aged between 14 and 18 that watched these music videos were one and half times more likely to drink and use drugs2. Rap music also makes frequent references to guns and shootings, robbery and violence and revenge gang attacks against rival gangs that tend to influence and promote violent behavior. â€Å"Music also affects children’s sexual development, those who listened to music with lyrics that objectified and limited characterizations of sexuality reported a faster progression in their own sexual behavior†3. This is as opposed to children who are taught to listen to classical music by the likes of Mozart and Mendelssohn, which tend to be more successful and college prepared than those that have not been trained to listen to such kind of music4. The argument about whether or not music negatively affects children is inconclusive because, while some findings suggest music, for example, rap advocate violent behavior some findings suggest that music can be used as an anti-violent tool where rap was used for an anti- violence function in South Bronx, New York neighborhoods in the late 1970s5. Music is also considered a stress and anxiety reliever, it is used to destruct the mind from pain and hence calms the listener reliving them from pain stress (Bel Marra Health)6. Hence, an extensive research should be done to conclude concretely whether music has a negative or positive impact on

Rubber Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rubber - Research Paper Example â€Å"Rubber is also useful as an adhesive, a coating composition, a fiber, a moulding compound and an electrical insulator.† (Rubber)Apart from natural rubber, artificial rubber also invented later. The history and background of rubber can be an interesting topic because of the conspiracy about the origin of rubber. â€Å"Until recently, modern thinkers believed rubber originated in 19th century Europe. According to a Tech Talk article published by Massachusetts Institute of Technology on Wednesday, July 14, 1999, Professor Dorothy Hosler, Assistant Professor Sandra Burkett and an undergraduate named Michael Tarkanian learned that the Mayan people in ancient Mesoamerica made and used rubber as long ago as 1600 BCE.† (Snider) Though the extensive use of rubber just like at present was not known to the Mesoamericans. The first use for rubber was an eraser. It was Magellan, a descendent of the famous Portuguese navigator, who suggested this use (Brief History & Introduction of Rubber) Still rubber is used as an eraser and there are not much substitutes or competition for rubber in this area also. In fact the peculiar thing about rubber is that there is no substitute for many uses of rubber. For example, for tire making, tube making or for an eraser making we don’t have any other subs tances to replace rubber. In 1839, Charles Goodyear accidentally dropped rubber and sulfur on a hot stovetop, causing it to char like leather yet remain plastic and elastic. Vulcanization, a refined version of this process, transformed the white sap from the bark of the Hevea tree into an essential product for the industrial age (Butler) The modern methods of vulcanization of rubber has invented later. The vulcanization character of rubber is made use in the making of tires, tubes and many other material manufacturing. Vulcanization makes rubber material harder, much more durable and also more resistant to chemical attack. Vulcanization of rubber is done by mixing of

Melodramatic stage Essay Example for Free

Melodramatic stage Essay It isnt so free here either, Rodolfo, like you think. I seen greenhorns sometimes get in trouble that way they think just because girls do not go around with a shawl around her head that she isnt strict, yknow? Girls dont have to wear black dresses to be strict. Know what I mean?  Although Eddie did not absolutely loose his temper he has forewarned Rodolfo very frankly in front of the whole of household that he should keep his distance from Catherine. Well, I always have respect   I know, but in your town you wouldnt just drag off some girl without permission, you know what I mean Marco?  Marco who has been quiet until now cautiously says yes, he does not want to interfere between Rodolfo and Catherine but does not want to answer Eddie no as this would make Eddie distrustful of him, which he wants to avoid.  Well he didnt just drag her off though, Eddie.  Beatrice on the other hand gets fractious by this and sharply replies to Eddie, Eddie aware of her criticising force softens up but doesnt stop. He goes on to say   It might be a little different here, but it is just as strict. Rodolfo now realises Eddies anger for him and in a tender-hearted voice asks him-  Did I do anything wrong.  Eddie now propitiates and tells him that he is not her father, but before he could finish, Beatrice ungraciously interrupts and rebukes him to be her uncle. Eddie realising her indignation keeps his temper under control, as he wants to show Rodolfo who is the person in jurisdiction of the house  Marco who has been without intervention listening to the whole matter gets up in a censurable way and asks Beatrice and Eddie to tell Rodolfo, if he has made any mistakes. Marco probably does not fully actualizes Eddies anger against Rodolfo yet, he thinks it is ephemeral and tries to make things more transparent and satisfy Eddie. Beatrice tells Eddie that the reason why Rodolfo and Catherine came late was because the movie ended late, but Marco tries to calm Eddie by asking Rodolfo to come home early. Eddie sensing Marco on his side tries to restrict Rodolfos movements and stop him going out with Catherine by saying   Look, kid, I am not only talking about her. The more you run around like this more chance there is that you get picked by immigration bureau.  Beatrice senses Eddies intentions and again ungraciously interrupts him between his conversations and says that there is the same chance in the daytime. Until now Eddie has been attempting to make his point Non contentiously, but after being ungraciously rebuked by Beatrice, he gracelessly tells cousins that he thought they were both coming here to work and earn money, not fool around. This exceptionally strikes with Marco as he has responsibility for feeding his wife and children. Marco confirms with Eddie, that this is still the case. This embarrasses Marco, because by saying that if you are here to work than you should work, Eddie is essentially saying you can only live in my house if, you work hard and particularly mind your own business. This is of exceptional significance to Marco as he has four children and a wife who he has to send money which provides for their food and medicine, or else they would die. This is also the first awkwardness between Marco and Eddie as until now Eddie has regarded Marco as a hard working man and always respected him. Catherine who is the focal point of this entire repercussion between cousins and Eddie is now glowing with revolt against him. Catherine who is a grown up girl, who wants to be free and spend more time with Rodolfo views Eddie as someone preventing her from outside world, indeed, Eddie is obsessed with Catherine and is extremely over-protective towards her. He wants to dominate every aspect of her life, from the clothes she wears to the person she waves to and where she should go for a job. And now Catherine flushed with anger tries to disobey Eddie by inviting Rodolfo to dance with her on Paper Doll. Rodolfo, who is afraid that Eddie may make an issue of this, shows some fictional unwillingness in difference to Eddie. Beatrice countenances Rodolfo to go ahead and dance. Catherine takes Rodolfos hand and he stiffly rises, feeling Eddies eyes on his back they dance. The tension between the characters can be easily seen in their actions. Catherines rebellious behaviour is easily visible, when she goes to Rodolfo and takes his hand in her hand and invites him to dance. Rodolfo doesnt easily agrees to dance, he first shows fictional unwillingness feeling Eddies eyes on his back, but after being inspired by Beatrice stiffly rises and goes to dance.  Eddie perceiving the tension in the house does not react to Catherine dancing with Rodolfo, but turns his head away in a very deprecate demeanour. At this point in the play, audience know that Eddie Carbone is very prophylactic towards his niece and he despises Rodolfo. This new crisis has taken a categorically different turn; Catherine is becoming more and more mutinous and Beatrice is advocating Rodolfo and Catherine. Eddie seems to be the only person secluded trying to what he thinks, protect Catherine from Rodolfo. Audience anticipate this extremity to be deciphered possibly by Beatrice. Throughout the whole play Beatrice has been impersonated by Miller as the most consequential person on Eddie Carbone, she has also actively tried to diffuse the tensions by jokes and in some contentions she has taken sides and silenced Eddie. She is also the person who is most consequential and proximate to Eddie. However, Carbone household is once again under strain, as Eddie Carbone the prophylactic, unpretentious character soon finds out that he is  Un-proficient to control his indignation, covetousness and detestation towards Rodolfo. Until now, Eddie has only been manifesting his indignation towards Rodolfo through declamation, but this melodramatically changes after Catherine, crimsoned with rebellion, disgusted with Eddies intervention in every countenance of her life invites Rodolfo to dance with her. This brings out an exorbitant indignation from Eddie, now we see Eddie expressing his vehemence not only through words but also through actions. After the dance, Eddie Carbone infuriated by his indignation delivers an atrocious dialogue to the whole of the household about Rodolfo.  Hes lucky, believe me. Thats why the waterfront is no place for him. I mean like me I cant cook, I cant sing, I cant make dresses, so Im on the waterfront. But if I could cook, if I could sing, if I could make dresses, I wouldnt be on the water front.  This speech is of un-describable significance to the play. In this speech Eddie nearly exposes the whole issue in front of the whole household, by his dialogue but more by his actions. Eddie, by the end of his speech is perfunctorily twisting the newspaper in his hand in to a tight roll when it unexpectedly tears in half. This shows exasperated and how fretful Eddie has become of Rodolfos relationship with Catherine, and now Eddies indignation has reached a new level against Rodolfo and now his furore and ire can be seen in his actions. As seen throughout the whole play Miller uses melodramatic stage directions and often characters dramatize actions which changes the course of the whole play. For example, Eddies furore and ire against Rodolfo are disclosed, when Eddie rolls the newspaper in to a tight roll and then it tears in two. These types of actions not only give audiences clues of how this particular character will react to this character and to this kind of situation next time, but also gives them clues of what will happen next in the play.

Analysis of SMEs in India

Analysis of SMEs in India What are SMEs? Small and medium enterprises (also SMEs, small and medium businesses, SMBs, and variations thereof) are companies whose headcount or turnover falls below certain limits. The lack of a universal definition for SMEs is often considered to be an obstacle for business studies and market research. Definitions in use today define thresholds in terms of employment, turnover and assets. They also incorporate a reasonable amount of flexibility around year-to-year changes in these measures so that a business qualifying as an SME in one year can have a reasonable expectation of remaining an SME in the next. The thresholds themselves, however, vary substantially between countries. As the SME thresholds dictate to some extent the provision of government support, countries in which manufacturing and labor-intensive industries are prioritized politically tend to opt for more relaxed thresholds. Definition of SMEs in Indian context The MSMED Act 2006, which came into force w.e.f. 02/10/2006, defines the Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises. As per the Act, the activities are classified into Manufacturing and Service Category. Initially, the MSMED Act 2006 had not defined the ‘Services Sector and RBIs guidelines were awaited. However, subsequently RBI have defined the services sector and the activities that can be covered under the SME sector. The following chart indicates the threshold investment levels for both Manufacturing sector (INVESTMENT IN PLANT MACHINERY) and Services sector (INVESTMENT IN EQUIPMENT) for the above three categories of Manufacturing and Services Enterprises : While calculating the investment in plant and machinery/equipment referred to above, the original price thereof shall be taken into account,irrespective of whether the plant and machinery/equipment are new or second hand. In case of imported machinery/equipment, the following duty/charges/costs shall be included in calculating their value: Import Duty (not to include miscellaneous expenses such as transportation from the port to the site of the factory, demurrage paid at the port); Shipping Charges; Customs Clearance charges; and Sales Tax or Value-added Tax. Cost of the following plant machinery/equipments etc would be excluded:; equipments such as tools, jigs, dies, moulds, and spare parts for maintenance and the cost of consumable stores; installation of plant machinery; research and development and pollution control equipments; power generation set and extra transformer installed by the enterprises as per the Regulations of the State Electricity Board; Bank charges and Service Charges paid to the National Small Industries Corporation or the State Small Industries Corporation; Procurement or Installation of cables, wiring bus bars, electrical control panels (not mounted on individual machines) Oil circuit breakers or miniature circuit breakers which are necessarily to be used for providing electrical power to the plant and machinery or for safety measures; Gas producer plants; Transportation charges (other than sales tax or value-added tax and excise duty) for indigeneous machinery from the place of their manufacture to the site of the enterprise); Charges paid for technical know-how for erection of plant machinery; Such storage tanks which store raw materials and finished products only and are not linked with the manufacturing process; Fire-fighting equipment; and Such other items as may be specified, by notification from time to time. In case of Service Enterprises, the original cost to exclude furniture, fittings and other items not directly related to the services rendered. Land and Building would also not be included while computing the machinery/equipments cost. SME would be meant to include Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). The above definitions of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises would be in place of the existing definitions of Small Medium Industries and SSSBEs/Tiny Enterprises. Micro Enterprises would include Tiny Industries also. Small Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Small Scale Industries (SSIs). Medium Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Medium Industries (MIs). Small Enterprises (Services) and Medium Enterprises(Services) would mean other Small Medium Enterprises. Thus, SME Advances would be categorised as under: All advances to segments viz. Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in the Manufacturing sector irrespective of sanctioned limits, (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers), and Advances to Services Sectors such as Professional Self-Employed, Small Business Enterprises, and Small Road/Water Transport Operators and other enterprises, engaged in providing/rendering of services, conforming to the above investment criteria and -enjoying borrowing/non-borrowing facilities with the Bank (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers). Those enterprises exceeding the investment ceilings would be categorized as Large Enterprises and be outside the purview of SME. The sanctioned limits would no longer be the criteria determining the status as micro or small or medium enterprises in these cases. Reserve Bank of India has since reviewed the definition on Priority Sector and have issued revised guidelines on lending to Priority Sector vide their Master Circular dated 2nd July, 2007. As per this circular Retail Trade is excluded from the activities classified as SME. (Source: www.bankofindia.com) Importance of SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the backbone of all economies and are a key source of economic growth, dynamism and flexibility in advanced industrialized countries, as well as in emerging and developing economies. SMEs constitute the dominant form of business organization, accounting for over 95% and up to 99% of enterprises depending on the country. They are responsible for between 60-70% net job creations in Developing countries. Small businesses are particularly important for bringing innovative products or techniques to the market. Microsoft may be a software giant today, but it started off in typical SME fashion, as a dream developed by a young student with the help of family and friends. Only when Bill Gates and his colleagues had a saleable product were they able to take it to the marketplace and look for investment from more traditional sources. SMEs are vital for economic growth and development in both industrialized and developing countries, by playing a key role in creating new jobs. Financing is necessary to help them set up and expand their operations, develop new products, and invest in new staff or production facilities. Many small businesses start out as an idea from one or two people, who invest their own money and probably turn to family and friends for financial help in return for a share in the business. But if they are successful, there comes a time for all developing SMEs when they need new investment to expand or innovate further. That is where they often run into problems, because they find it much harder than larger businesses to obtain financing from banks, capital markets or other suppliers of credit. Boosting industrial growth By enhancing existing capacities, and by delivering cost-efficient goods and services as per the requirements of the local markets, SMEs have been driving industrial growth. Inspiring Consumption and Social Change SMEs play a defining role by offering reasonable, yet revolutionary goods and services to cater to the changing market requirements. Currently, SMEs have made its presence felt in areas like education, medical care, transportation, entertainment and local infrastructure development. Minuscule investment SMEs need low capital investment, in terms of per unit of output Increased Employment Opportunities SMEs generate both direct and indirect employment opportunities, in 2006-07, for instance, for every ten million rupees invested by the SME sector spawned employment opportunities for over 150 people. However, the same amount of investment carried out by the overall economy generated employment for just 37. 4 people. As per Government statistics in 2007-08, SMEs generated employment for 31.25 million people. Fuelling the local economy SMEs make use of natural resources and domestic skills to cater to the domestic market. The growth of SME sector also helps in socio-economic upliftment as it generates employment opportunities for untapped masses, living in urban and rural regions. Discourages migration to urban areas SMEs are synonymous for entrepreneurship. And the best part being setting up an SME doesnt include much risk. If SMEs generate employment opportunities in rural and semi-urban areas, migration to urban areas can be stemmed to a great extent. Transition from Agriculture Economy to Service-oriented one SMEs can play a crucial role in achieving the transition from a dominant agricultural economy to a service oriented economy, akin to Japan. Japans agricultural workforce has gone done from 68 percent to 4.9 percent, in case of United States, from 44 percent to 9 percent. Further, Indian agriculture sector can no longer generate extra employment opportunities to meet the requirements of the ever-growing population. In such a situation, only SMEs can come to the nations rescue. SME in the global scenario Even in the global scenario SMEs have always played a crucial role in their respective countrys economy. International comparisons reveal that SMEs create the majority of jobs. In the USA, nearly half of the private workforce is employed in small firms, of which three-fifth have less than five employees. In Japan, 78 percent of jobs are generated by SMEs. The same sector in Korea accounts for 99 percent of all manufacturing enterprises and 69 percent of employment in this sector. Therefore, SMEs must play a central role in the countrys employment strategy. This will require modification of policies and programmes to level the playing field, improve availability of credit, increase productivity, raise quality consciousness and competitiveness, and enhance job quality. Recent experiences of different countries in the context of globalisation also demonstrate that SMEs are better insulated from the pressures generated by the volatility of world trade and capital markets. They are more resistant to the stresses, and more responsive to the demands of the fast-changing technologies and entrepreneurial responses. Indeed, they are observed to be a very important vehicle for new technology adoption and entrepreneurial development. Ensuring the competitiveness of the SMEs is important as it would help in overall growth of manufacturing sector as also the national economy. The Indian Context The micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) sector contributes significantly to the manufacturing output, employment and exports of the country. It is estimated that in terms of value, the sector accounts for about 45 per cent of the manufacturing output and 40 percent of the total exports of the country. The sector is estimated to employ about 42 million persons in over 13 million units throughout the country. Further, this sector has consistently registered a higher growth rate than the rest of the industrial sector. There are over 6000 products ranging from traditional to high-tech items, which are being manufactured by the MSMEs in India. It is well known that the MSMEs provide the maximum opportunities for both self employment and jobs after agriculture. Recognizing the contribution and potential of the sector, the definitions and coverage of the MSE sector were broadened significantly under the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006 which recognized the concept of â€Å"enterprise† to include both manufacturing and services sector besides, defining the medium enterprises. For collecting and compiling the data for the MSME sector (including khadi, village and coir industries), the Fourth All India Census of MSMEs with reference year 2006-07, is being conducted in the country. The Census will provide the first database on the MSME sector after the enactment of MSME Development Act, 2006. PERFORMANCE OF MSEs As per the quick estimates of 4th All-India Census of MSMEs, the number ofenterprises is estimated to be about 26 million and these provide employment to an estimated60 million persons. Of the 26 million MSMEs, only 1.5 million are in theregistered segment while the remaining 24.5 million (94%) are in the unregistered segment. The State-wise distribution of MSMEs show that more than 55% of these enterprises are in 6 States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Further, about 7% of MSMEs are owned by women and more than 94% of the MSMEs are proprietorships or partnerships. In view of the MSME sectors role in the economic and social development of the country, the Government has emphasized on its growth and development. It has taken various measures/initiatives from time to time which have facilitated the sectors ubiquitous growth. No discussion on MSMEs can be complete without a full treatment of the unorganized sector in which ent erprises are typically established through own funds or funds obtained through non-institutional sources, they lack managerial bandwidth, do not have established channels for marketing and are centered around a single traditional technology. More than 94 percent of MSMEs are unregistered, with a large number established in the informal or unorganized sector. The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) defines unorganized sector as enterprise employing less than 10 workers. It has estimated such enterprises at 58 million with employment generated of 104 million persons. Of these, more than half the workers are classified as ‘self-employed. A large segment in this universe of self-employed consists of those who are engaged in non-farm activities. This segment predominantly consists of own account enterprises, i.e., where there are no hired workers and are run by self with or without the help of unpaid family members. The own account enterprises can be distinguished into those running within households and those outside the households. The household enterprises operate on the basis of family labour organizing production on its own, acquire its own raw material, use its own machinery and tools and market its products. Apart from own account enterprises, this segment also consists of enterprises having hired workers between 2 to 9. Very often, these enterprises are located in clusters but function independently without inter-firm linkages. The Office of the DC (MSME) provides estimates in respect of various performance parameters relating to the Sector. The time series data in respect of the Sector on various economic parameters, is incorporated in the following Table: MSEs Performance: Units, Investment, Production, Employment Exports The figures in brackets show the % growth over the previous year. Projected COMPARISON OF THE MSE SECTOR WITH THE OVERALL INDUSTRIAL SECTOR: The MSE sector has maintained a higher rate of growth vis-à  -vis the overall industrial sector as would be clear from the comparative growth rates of production for both the sectors during last five years as incorporated in the Table given below: Comparative Growth Rates CONTRIBUTION OF MSEs IN THE GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) EMPLOYMENT IN MSE SECTOR The total employment from the MSE sector (including SSSBEs) in the country as per the Third All India Census of MSEs with reference Year 2001-02 was 249.33 lakh numbers. The units operating with fixed premises are treated as MSEs. As per the estimates compiled for the year 2007-08, the employment was 322.28 lakh persons in the sector. The share of MSEs in the total employment among units engaged in manufacturing and services is around 34.93%. Challenges faced by smes Mentoring Advocacy Even today, most small business in India are set up by first generation entrepreneurs. They often have a product or service idea, some money, a zest to hard work but limited knowledge about markets, Government or bank procedures, cash flows or how to manage labour. This is where mentoring a hand holding support becomes crucial. At times, this comes from an individual such as friend, relative, an NGO or a parent unit. This is episodic and unable to meet the vast requirement which the country has. This is sought to be institutionalized through extension/outreach efforts of central and state Governments. Trained manpower is made available for this task, right down the district levels, to act as the friend, philosopher and guide. These resource persons guide in setting up a evit, making it commercially viable, interacting with financial institutions and understanding markets, as well as the impact of globalisation with advancements in it. There is a strong more towards linking SMEs with bigger commodity or supply chain and providing acceptable quality and delivery schedules. The Central Governments agency for the task, the Small Industry Development Organisation, has accordingly moved away from its pre-reform regulatory to a direct promotional role of hand holding, advocacy and facilitation. This encompasses the legislative support put in place, fiscal incentives and protection from unequal competition. Credit Credit is the lifeline of business. Small businesses lack access to capital and money markets. Investors are unwilling to invest in proprietorships, partnerships or unlisted companies. As risk perception about small businesses is high. So is the cost of capital, institutional credit, when available, requires collateral which in turn makes the owner of the unit even more vulnerable to foreclosure. Credit guarantee funds which assist lending institution in advancing loans or mutual guarantee systems involving common guarantees from a group of people have not emerged in a significant manner. Unit finances comes under severe stress whenever an occasional event such as a large order, rejection of consignment, inordinate delay in payment occurs. The common stereotype about a banker lending an umbrella in sunshine and wanting it back as soon as it rains, gets reinforced in their dealing with small enterprises. It is, therefore, not surprising, that small enterprises prefer to first tap own resources or loans from friends and relatives and theres look for external finance. In India, many of small manufacturing enterprises do not access bank finance and only about 16% of total bank credit finds its way to the sector. Despite being a priority sector for lending, small manufacturing enterprises get just about 8% of their annual turnover as working capital requirements, as against normative requirements of 20%. Even for this, cost of credit is high. The problem is recognized and is sought to be addressed through various ways: Establishment of ISO 9000 certified, specialized SSI bank branches in districts/clusters. Directive for working capital finance @ 20% of annual normative turnover. Waiver of collateral requirements upto Rs. 0.5 million. Setting up of a credit Guarantee Trust to cover loans upto Rs. 2.5 million. Composite loans from a single agency upto Rs. 2.5 million. A national equity fund for equity to SSI units at 5 percent service charge Technology As mentioned earlier, small enterprises are often regarded for their labour intensity and the capability to work with local resources. In the part, this has often led to less emphasis on technology. Run of the mill technology coupled with functional packaging and inadequate finishing have at times led to small sector products being labeled as being of poor or substandard quality. This has a cascading impact on competitiveness. As small enterprises realize the need to link up with large ones, they are having a relook at technology options which would improve productivity, effectiveness and competitiveness. While sourcing technology, small business need to concentrate on the following essential issues: Information about Technology For small units information about technology options is often through word of mouth or from a visit to an advanced unit. With the advent of internet, new vistas are opening up through electronic journey catalogue downloads and advanced search facilities. The technology bureau for small enterprise promoted with the assistance of the UN offers access to databases and information on technology. Technology intervention in clusters offers near by units an opportunity for a look and feel of advanced technology entrepreneurs are also assisted to participate in overseas trade fairs to update tem with latest worldwide. Tool rooms, testing centres, production-cum-process centres and workshops also assist in this task. Actual procurement of technology Barriers to import technology, technology transfer issues, vendor capability, after sales support, import procedures impede procurement. In India, the Asia Pacific Centre to Transfer of Technology promotes match making between buyer and seller and facilities procurement through escort services. Encouragement to import of capital goods has also helped. Finance for Technology upgradation Small enterprises look to external sources of funding for upgrading technology as withdrawing money from business entails its own costs. In India, a technology upgradation and modernization fund and a hire purchase scheme attempts to meet this requirement. These are however, funds at normal lending costs. A new scheme called the credit linked capital subsidy scheme, for reducing the cost of funds, has now been put into place. Market Access In todays world, small enterprises can hardly match the adventising support or distribution reach of a large corporation. In India, small units sell best in limited or neighbourhood markets or when they are meeting a low volume specialized demand which no large player can effectively caterto. Increasingly, now the endeavour is to build the marketing activity of small units around their competitive advantage i.e., products which are labour intensive, items which cater to niche markets, low volume high margin products, sub assembly tasks, outsourcing jobs and ancillarisation. Sub-contracting exchanges are being established through Government and Industry associations to promote such interface. After sales service for imported products, AMCs on electronic equipment, reverse engineering (to the extent that it is WTO compatible) are the other areas being encouraged, sophisticated marketing is a task best left to large players. Small enterprises in India are realizing that the term â€Å" marketing† perhaps implies different things to different people for new SME businesses, head on competition with established giants makes little sense. Infrastructure Small units have traditionally operated from homes or a neighborhood work shed. Slowly, they began moving out and clustering together wherever electricity, water, raw materials, markets or labour were easier to access. Policy makers in India had anticipated the need for suitable infrastructure five decades ago and began a programme for setting up industrial estates. Non-assessment of economic viability, tardy implementation and poor maintenance due to drying up of funds affected these adversely. Later in the post reform period, the problem was sought to be addressed by setting up of such estates exclusively for small business. Almost 50 such estates have been set up. Because of their better infrastructure such as roads, telecommunication, power, effluent treatment plants, power, banks, watch ward, and reasonable cost, they have proved to be popular with small manufacturing for factory accommodation, allotment of sheds on hire purchase as well as outright sale etc. A concerted move h as also now been initiated for upgrading existing estates. Globalisation The globalisation of trade commerce has been given a push by agreements in the WTO and changed the business environment. It has therefore become necessary to sensitise SMEs about these changes and prepare them for the future. In India, a number of steps have been taken in this regard. Apart from setting up a WTO cell in the nodal ministry, 28 sensitization workshops were conducted across the country. Workshops have also been held on intellectual property rights and bar coding. Monitoring of imports in specific sectors where SMEs hae a significant presence and initiation of anti-dumping action where dumping was noticed, are the other steps taken in this respect. Procedures Government and bank procedures coupled with inspections remain a major hurdle in growth of small units. There are over 60 central, state and local laws which regulate small businesses in the areas of labour, factory maintenance environment, municipal bye laws, taxation, power etc. These require the maintenance of as many as 116 registers and forms. To enforce these, there is an army of inspector who visit units leading to harassment, delay, obstruction and increase in cost of production. Many small units are one man shows and cannot satisfy the letter of the law. The streamlining of such rules and regulations has become necessary if the creative genius of Indian entrepreneurs is to be fully unleashed. Some state governments have exhibited initiative in this regard. The Central Government has initiated a study to enact a single law for small businesses. This enactment should ease the situation considerably. Exit Mechanism Like products, Industries too have life cycles. There are industry segments which have seen their best days. Similarly, there are individual units where no amount of additional funds will help. Their bank loans have become bad and non performing. A sound exit policy which also safeguards labour interests has therefore, become necessary. It is anticipated that as of 1998, over Rs. 3.8 billion were locked in sick/weak units. An exit policy would help fresh circulation of a significant amount. The first steps in this regard have been taken recently by Indias central bank where by one time settlement of dues as on 31 March, 1997 was allowed. The results have been encouraging. Strategy Interventions for Revitalisation and Growth Significant charges in economic environment are being heralded in by the WTO. The removal of QRS has led to increased competition with imports. Many sectors of industry are facing competition from Chinese or Taiwanese imports within the country or from Bangladesh Srilanka or Nepal in export markets. It is the belief of the Indian Government that promotion and not protection is the answer to the issues of survival and growth. Thus, while reservation of items for exclusive production continues, the focus must now be on strengthening capabilities. This implies a holistic look at the concerns of industry. As part of this, the following strategic interventions have been initiated Easing access to general credit Introduction of options of limited partnership and factoring Subsiding cost of finance for upgrading technology Industry specific technology upgradation programmes Fund for developing and accessing overseas markets for export Expanding reach of infrastructure programmes Ushering in a regime of self certification in lien of inspections for various regulations Interventions in the future require that hurdles to growth are removed. They must encourage a seamless movement from small to medium to large. The Indian Government, therefore, is working on a new vision for the SSI sector through a flexible approach and a motivated team. The advocacy role of Government now involves new dimensions such as building up and arguing cases before the world trade body or dispute redressal for a, articulating needs of small enterprises before decision makers and other agencies. Credit is increasingly being made available at international rates. Technology upgrades at both the cluster and the individual level are being assisted. Cluster level technologies will be at Government cost with only user charges recovered credit guarantee scheme has been put in place if our market has opened up to due to WTO, we need to enable our small units established foot holds in new markets opened up for then by globalisation. Thus, along with improving quality, they are being given the opportunity of over seas travel, conducting market surveys, test marketing etc. The existing industrial centres are being revamped by involving industry associations with some government assistance and finally a migration from sunset industries to sunrise industries is being encouraged through a comprehensive and graceful exit policy, which balances interest of labour with those of the owners. Conclusion The singular contribution of SMEs is on account of their unique characteristics. Their role in economic activity is manifest in both tangible and intangible ways. If this contribution is to be sustained, then their uniqueness needs to be nurtured in an overt and explicit manner. The Indian experience has shown that it is possible to design targeted interventions be they area specific like clusters or be they sector / sub-sector or product-specific. Other countries, be they Asian or OECD, also have policies which aim at similar support. The need of the hour is for us to learn from each other, drawing upon experiences and identity best practice policies. These in turn have to meet local conditions and circumstances. A one size fits all approach will not work. Nevertheless, there can be no two opinions about the priority that SME policies deserve for achieving the socio-economic goal of employment growth and social justice, along with the individual aspirations. Recent Government Policies and Measures In addition to the growth potential of the sector and its critical role in the manufacturing and value chains, the heterogeneity and the unorganised nature of the Indian MSMEs are important aspects that need to be factored into policy making an Analysis of SMEs in India Analysis of SMEs in India What are SMEs? Small and medium enterprises (also SMEs, small and medium businesses, SMBs, and variations thereof) are companies whose headcount or turnover falls below certain limits. The lack of a universal definition for SMEs is often considered to be an obstacle for business studies and market research. Definitions in use today define thresholds in terms of employment, turnover and assets. They also incorporate a reasonable amount of flexibility around year-to-year changes in these measures so that a business qualifying as an SME in one year can have a reasonable expectation of remaining an SME in the next. The thresholds themselves, however, vary substantially between countries. As the SME thresholds dictate to some extent the provision of government support, countries in which manufacturing and labor-intensive industries are prioritized politically tend to opt for more relaxed thresholds. Definition of SMEs in Indian context The MSMED Act 2006, which came into force w.e.f. 02/10/2006, defines the Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises. As per the Act, the activities are classified into Manufacturing and Service Category. Initially, the MSMED Act 2006 had not defined the ‘Services Sector and RBIs guidelines were awaited. However, subsequently RBI have defined the services sector and the activities that can be covered under the SME sector. The following chart indicates the threshold investment levels for both Manufacturing sector (INVESTMENT IN PLANT MACHINERY) and Services sector (INVESTMENT IN EQUIPMENT) for the above three categories of Manufacturing and Services Enterprises : While calculating the investment in plant and machinery/equipment referred to above, the original price thereof shall be taken into account,irrespective of whether the plant and machinery/equipment are new or second hand. In case of imported machinery/equipment, the following duty/charges/costs shall be included in calculating their value: Import Duty (not to include miscellaneous expenses such as transportation from the port to the site of the factory, demurrage paid at the port); Shipping Charges; Customs Clearance charges; and Sales Tax or Value-added Tax. Cost of the following plant machinery/equipments etc would be excluded:; equipments such as tools, jigs, dies, moulds, and spare parts for maintenance and the cost of consumable stores; installation of plant machinery; research and development and pollution control equipments; power generation set and extra transformer installed by the enterprises as per the Regulations of the State Electricity Board; Bank charges and Service Charges paid to the National Small Industries Corporation or the State Small Industries Corporation; Procurement or Installation of cables, wiring bus bars, electrical control panels (not mounted on individual machines) Oil circuit breakers or miniature circuit breakers which are necessarily to be used for providing electrical power to the plant and machinery or for safety measures; Gas producer plants; Transportation charges (other than sales tax or value-added tax and excise duty) for indigeneous machinery from the place of their manufacture to the site of the enterprise); Charges paid for technical know-how for erection of plant machinery; Such storage tanks which store raw materials and finished products only and are not linked with the manufacturing process; Fire-fighting equipment; and Such other items as may be specified, by notification from time to time. In case of Service Enterprises, the original cost to exclude furniture, fittings and other items not directly related to the services rendered. Land and Building would also not be included while computing the machinery/equipments cost. SME would be meant to include Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). The above definitions of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises would be in place of the existing definitions of Small Medium Industries and SSSBEs/Tiny Enterprises. Micro Enterprises would include Tiny Industries also. Small Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Small Scale Industries (SSIs). Medium Enterprises (Manufacturing) would mean Medium Industries (MIs). Small Enterprises (Services) and Medium Enterprises(Services) would mean other Small Medium Enterprises. Thus, SME Advances would be categorised as under: All advances to segments viz. Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in the Manufacturing sector irrespective of sanctioned limits, (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers), and Advances to Services Sectors such as Professional Self-Employed, Small Business Enterprises, and Small Road/Water Transport Operators and other enterprises, engaged in providing/rendering of services, conforming to the above investment criteria and -enjoying borrowing/non-borrowing facilities with the Bank (including advances against TDRs/Govt. Securities etc for business purposes to these categories of Borrowers). Those enterprises exceeding the investment ceilings would be categorized as Large Enterprises and be outside the purview of SME. The sanctioned limits would no longer be the criteria determining the status as micro or small or medium enterprises in these cases. Reserve Bank of India has since reviewed the definition on Priority Sector and have issued revised guidelines on lending to Priority Sector vide their Master Circular dated 2nd July, 2007. As per this circular Retail Trade is excluded from the activities classified as SME. (Source: www.bankofindia.com) Importance of SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the backbone of all economies and are a key source of economic growth, dynamism and flexibility in advanced industrialized countries, as well as in emerging and developing economies. SMEs constitute the dominant form of business organization, accounting for over 95% and up to 99% of enterprises depending on the country. They are responsible for between 60-70% net job creations in Developing countries. Small businesses are particularly important for bringing innovative products or techniques to the market. Microsoft may be a software giant today, but it started off in typical SME fashion, as a dream developed by a young student with the help of family and friends. Only when Bill Gates and his colleagues had a saleable product were they able to take it to the marketplace and look for investment from more traditional sources. SMEs are vital for economic growth and development in both industrialized and developing countries, by playing a key role in creating new jobs. Financing is necessary to help them set up and expand their operations, develop new products, and invest in new staff or production facilities. Many small businesses start out as an idea from one or two people, who invest their own money and probably turn to family and friends for financial help in return for a share in the business. But if they are successful, there comes a time for all developing SMEs when they need new investment to expand or innovate further. That is where they often run into problems, because they find it much harder than larger businesses to obtain financing from banks, capital markets or other suppliers of credit. Boosting industrial growth By enhancing existing capacities, and by delivering cost-efficient goods and services as per the requirements of the local markets, SMEs have been driving industrial growth. Inspiring Consumption and Social Change SMEs play a defining role by offering reasonable, yet revolutionary goods and services to cater to the changing market requirements. Currently, SMEs have made its presence felt in areas like education, medical care, transportation, entertainment and local infrastructure development. Minuscule investment SMEs need low capital investment, in terms of per unit of output Increased Employment Opportunities SMEs generate both direct and indirect employment opportunities, in 2006-07, for instance, for every ten million rupees invested by the SME sector spawned employment opportunities for over 150 people. However, the same amount of investment carried out by the overall economy generated employment for just 37. 4 people. As per Government statistics in 2007-08, SMEs generated employment for 31.25 million people. Fuelling the local economy SMEs make use of natural resources and domestic skills to cater to the domestic market. The growth of SME sector also helps in socio-economic upliftment as it generates employment opportunities for untapped masses, living in urban and rural regions. Discourages migration to urban areas SMEs are synonymous for entrepreneurship. And the best part being setting up an SME doesnt include much risk. If SMEs generate employment opportunities in rural and semi-urban areas, migration to urban areas can be stemmed to a great extent. Transition from Agriculture Economy to Service-oriented one SMEs can play a crucial role in achieving the transition from a dominant agricultural economy to a service oriented economy, akin to Japan. Japans agricultural workforce has gone done from 68 percent to 4.9 percent, in case of United States, from 44 percent to 9 percent. Further, Indian agriculture sector can no longer generate extra employment opportunities to meet the requirements of the ever-growing population. In such a situation, only SMEs can come to the nations rescue. SME in the global scenario Even in the global scenario SMEs have always played a crucial role in their respective countrys economy. International comparisons reveal that SMEs create the majority of jobs. In the USA, nearly half of the private workforce is employed in small firms, of which three-fifth have less than five employees. In Japan, 78 percent of jobs are generated by SMEs. The same sector in Korea accounts for 99 percent of all manufacturing enterprises and 69 percent of employment in this sector. Therefore, SMEs must play a central role in the countrys employment strategy. This will require modification of policies and programmes to level the playing field, improve availability of credit, increase productivity, raise quality consciousness and competitiveness, and enhance job quality. Recent experiences of different countries in the context of globalisation also demonstrate that SMEs are better insulated from the pressures generated by the volatility of world trade and capital markets. They are more resistant to the stresses, and more responsive to the demands of the fast-changing technologies and entrepreneurial responses. Indeed, they are observed to be a very important vehicle for new technology adoption and entrepreneurial development. Ensuring the competitiveness of the SMEs is important as it would help in overall growth of manufacturing sector as also the national economy. The Indian Context The micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) sector contributes significantly to the manufacturing output, employment and exports of the country. It is estimated that in terms of value, the sector accounts for about 45 per cent of the manufacturing output and 40 percent of the total exports of the country. The sector is estimated to employ about 42 million persons in over 13 million units throughout the country. Further, this sector has consistently registered a higher growth rate than the rest of the industrial sector. There are over 6000 products ranging from traditional to high-tech items, which are being manufactured by the MSMEs in India. It is well known that the MSMEs provide the maximum opportunities for both self employment and jobs after agriculture. Recognizing the contribution and potential of the sector, the definitions and coverage of the MSE sector were broadened significantly under the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006 which recognized the concept of â€Å"enterprise† to include both manufacturing and services sector besides, defining the medium enterprises. For collecting and compiling the data for the MSME sector (including khadi, village and coir industries), the Fourth All India Census of MSMEs with reference year 2006-07, is being conducted in the country. The Census will provide the first database on the MSME sector after the enactment of MSME Development Act, 2006. PERFORMANCE OF MSEs As per the quick estimates of 4th All-India Census of MSMEs, the number ofenterprises is estimated to be about 26 million and these provide employment to an estimated60 million persons. Of the 26 million MSMEs, only 1.5 million are in theregistered segment while the remaining 24.5 million (94%) are in the unregistered segment. The State-wise distribution of MSMEs show that more than 55% of these enterprises are in 6 States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Further, about 7% of MSMEs are owned by women and more than 94% of the MSMEs are proprietorships or partnerships. In view of the MSME sectors role in the economic and social development of the country, the Government has emphasized on its growth and development. It has taken various measures/initiatives from time to time which have facilitated the sectors ubiquitous growth. No discussion on MSMEs can be complete without a full treatment of the unorganized sector in which ent erprises are typically established through own funds or funds obtained through non-institutional sources, they lack managerial bandwidth, do not have established channels for marketing and are centered around a single traditional technology. More than 94 percent of MSMEs are unregistered, with a large number established in the informal or unorganized sector. The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) defines unorganized sector as enterprise employing less than 10 workers. It has estimated such enterprises at 58 million with employment generated of 104 million persons. Of these, more than half the workers are classified as ‘self-employed. A large segment in this universe of self-employed consists of those who are engaged in non-farm activities. This segment predominantly consists of own account enterprises, i.e., where there are no hired workers and are run by self with or without the help of unpaid family members. The own account enterprises can be distinguished into those running within households and those outside the households. The household enterprises operate on the basis of family labour organizing production on its own, acquire its own raw material, use its own machinery and tools and market its products. Apart from own account enterprises, this segment also consists of enterprises having hired workers between 2 to 9. Very often, these enterprises are located in clusters but function independently without inter-firm linkages. The Office of the DC (MSME) provides estimates in respect of various performance parameters relating to the Sector. The time series data in respect of the Sector on various economic parameters, is incorporated in the following Table: MSEs Performance: Units, Investment, Production, Employment Exports The figures in brackets show the % growth over the previous year. Projected COMPARISON OF THE MSE SECTOR WITH THE OVERALL INDUSTRIAL SECTOR: The MSE sector has maintained a higher rate of growth vis-à  -vis the overall industrial sector as would be clear from the comparative growth rates of production for both the sectors during last five years as incorporated in the Table given below: Comparative Growth Rates CONTRIBUTION OF MSEs IN THE GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) EMPLOYMENT IN MSE SECTOR The total employment from the MSE sector (including SSSBEs) in the country as per the Third All India Census of MSEs with reference Year 2001-02 was 249.33 lakh numbers. The units operating with fixed premises are treated as MSEs. As per the estimates compiled for the year 2007-08, the employment was 322.28 lakh persons in the sector. The share of MSEs in the total employment among units engaged in manufacturing and services is around 34.93%. Challenges faced by smes Mentoring Advocacy Even today, most small business in India are set up by first generation entrepreneurs. They often have a product or service idea, some money, a zest to hard work but limited knowledge about markets, Government or bank procedures, cash flows or how to manage labour. This is where mentoring a hand holding support becomes crucial. At times, this comes from an individual such as friend, relative, an NGO or a parent unit. This is episodic and unable to meet the vast requirement which the country has. This is sought to be institutionalized through extension/outreach efforts of central and state Governments. Trained manpower is made available for this task, right down the district levels, to act as the friend, philosopher and guide. These resource persons guide in setting up a evit, making it commercially viable, interacting with financial institutions and understanding markets, as well as the impact of globalisation with advancements in it. There is a strong more towards linking SMEs with bigger commodity or supply chain and providing acceptable quality and delivery schedules. The Central Governments agency for the task, the Small Industry Development Organisation, has accordingly moved away from its pre-reform regulatory to a direct promotional role of hand holding, advocacy and facilitation. This encompasses the legislative support put in place, fiscal incentives and protection from unequal competition. Credit Credit is the lifeline of business. Small businesses lack access to capital and money markets. Investors are unwilling to invest in proprietorships, partnerships or unlisted companies. As risk perception about small businesses is high. So is the cost of capital, institutional credit, when available, requires collateral which in turn makes the owner of the unit even more vulnerable to foreclosure. Credit guarantee funds which assist lending institution in advancing loans or mutual guarantee systems involving common guarantees from a group of people have not emerged in a significant manner. Unit finances comes under severe stress whenever an occasional event such as a large order, rejection of consignment, inordinate delay in payment occurs. The common stereotype about a banker lending an umbrella in sunshine and wanting it back as soon as it rains, gets reinforced in their dealing with small enterprises. It is, therefore, not surprising, that small enterprises prefer to first tap own resources or loans from friends and relatives and theres look for external finance. In India, many of small manufacturing enterprises do not access bank finance and only about 16% of total bank credit finds its way to the sector. Despite being a priority sector for lending, small manufacturing enterprises get just about 8% of their annual turnover as working capital requirements, as against normative requirements of 20%. Even for this, cost of credit is high. The problem is recognized and is sought to be addressed through various ways: Establishment of ISO 9000 certified, specialized SSI bank branches in districts/clusters. Directive for working capital finance @ 20% of annual normative turnover. Waiver of collateral requirements upto Rs. 0.5 million. Setting up of a credit Guarantee Trust to cover loans upto Rs. 2.5 million. Composite loans from a single agency upto Rs. 2.5 million. A national equity fund for equity to SSI units at 5 percent service charge Technology As mentioned earlier, small enterprises are often regarded for their labour intensity and the capability to work with local resources. In the part, this has often led to less emphasis on technology. Run of the mill technology coupled with functional packaging and inadequate finishing have at times led to small sector products being labeled as being of poor or substandard quality. This has a cascading impact on competitiveness. As small enterprises realize the need to link up with large ones, they are having a relook at technology options which would improve productivity, effectiveness and competitiveness. While sourcing technology, small business need to concentrate on the following essential issues: Information about Technology For small units information about technology options is often through word of mouth or from a visit to an advanced unit. With the advent of internet, new vistas are opening up through electronic journey catalogue downloads and advanced search facilities. The technology bureau for small enterprise promoted with the assistance of the UN offers access to databases and information on technology. Technology intervention in clusters offers near by units an opportunity for a look and feel of advanced technology entrepreneurs are also assisted to participate in overseas trade fairs to update tem with latest worldwide. Tool rooms, testing centres, production-cum-process centres and workshops also assist in this task. Actual procurement of technology Barriers to import technology, technology transfer issues, vendor capability, after sales support, import procedures impede procurement. In India, the Asia Pacific Centre to Transfer of Technology promotes match making between buyer and seller and facilities procurement through escort services. Encouragement to import of capital goods has also helped. Finance for Technology upgradation Small enterprises look to external sources of funding for upgrading technology as withdrawing money from business entails its own costs. In India, a technology upgradation and modernization fund and a hire purchase scheme attempts to meet this requirement. These are however, funds at normal lending costs. A new scheme called the credit linked capital subsidy scheme, for reducing the cost of funds, has now been put into place. Market Access In todays world, small enterprises can hardly match the adventising support or distribution reach of a large corporation. In India, small units sell best in limited or neighbourhood markets or when they are meeting a low volume specialized demand which no large player can effectively caterto. Increasingly, now the endeavour is to build the marketing activity of small units around their competitive advantage i.e., products which are labour intensive, items which cater to niche markets, low volume high margin products, sub assembly tasks, outsourcing jobs and ancillarisation. Sub-contracting exchanges are being established through Government and Industry associations to promote such interface. After sales service for imported products, AMCs on electronic equipment, reverse engineering (to the extent that it is WTO compatible) are the other areas being encouraged, sophisticated marketing is a task best left to large players. Small enterprises in India are realizing that the term â€Å" marketing† perhaps implies different things to different people for new SME businesses, head on competition with established giants makes little sense. Infrastructure Small units have traditionally operated from homes or a neighborhood work shed. Slowly, they began moving out and clustering together wherever electricity, water, raw materials, markets or labour were easier to access. Policy makers in India had anticipated the need for suitable infrastructure five decades ago and began a programme for setting up industrial estates. Non-assessment of economic viability, tardy implementation and poor maintenance due to drying up of funds affected these adversely. Later in the post reform period, the problem was sought to be addressed by setting up of such estates exclusively for small business. Almost 50 such estates have been set up. Because of their better infrastructure such as roads, telecommunication, power, effluent treatment plants, power, banks, watch ward, and reasonable cost, they have proved to be popular with small manufacturing for factory accommodation, allotment of sheds on hire purchase as well as outright sale etc. A concerted move h as also now been initiated for upgrading existing estates. Globalisation The globalisation of trade commerce has been given a push by agreements in the WTO and changed the business environment. It has therefore become necessary to sensitise SMEs about these changes and prepare them for the future. In India, a number of steps have been taken in this regard. Apart from setting up a WTO cell in the nodal ministry, 28 sensitization workshops were conducted across the country. Workshops have also been held on intellectual property rights and bar coding. Monitoring of imports in specific sectors where SMEs hae a significant presence and initiation of anti-dumping action where dumping was noticed, are the other steps taken in this respect. Procedures Government and bank procedures coupled with inspections remain a major hurdle in growth of small units. There are over 60 central, state and local laws which regulate small businesses in the areas of labour, factory maintenance environment, municipal bye laws, taxation, power etc. These require the maintenance of as many as 116 registers and forms. To enforce these, there is an army of inspector who visit units leading to harassment, delay, obstruction and increase in cost of production. Many small units are one man shows and cannot satisfy the letter of the law. The streamlining of such rules and regulations has become necessary if the creative genius of Indian entrepreneurs is to be fully unleashed. Some state governments have exhibited initiative in this regard. The Central Government has initiated a study to enact a single law for small businesses. This enactment should ease the situation considerably. Exit Mechanism Like products, Industries too have life cycles. There are industry segments which have seen their best days. Similarly, there are individual units where no amount of additional funds will help. Their bank loans have become bad and non performing. A sound exit policy which also safeguards labour interests has therefore, become necessary. It is anticipated that as of 1998, over Rs. 3.8 billion were locked in sick/weak units. An exit policy would help fresh circulation of a significant amount. The first steps in this regard have been taken recently by Indias central bank where by one time settlement of dues as on 31 March, 1997 was allowed. The results have been encouraging. Strategy Interventions for Revitalisation and Growth Significant charges in economic environment are being heralded in by the WTO. The removal of QRS has led to increased competition with imports. Many sectors of industry are facing competition from Chinese or Taiwanese imports within the country or from Bangladesh Srilanka or Nepal in export markets. It is the belief of the Indian Government that promotion and not protection is the answer to the issues of survival and growth. Thus, while reservation of items for exclusive production continues, the focus must now be on strengthening capabilities. This implies a holistic look at the concerns of industry. As part of this, the following strategic interventions have been initiated Easing access to general credit Introduction of options of limited partnership and factoring Subsiding cost of finance for upgrading technology Industry specific technology upgradation programmes Fund for developing and accessing overseas markets for export Expanding reach of infrastructure programmes Ushering in a regime of self certification in lien of inspections for various regulations Interventions in the future require that hurdles to growth are removed. They must encourage a seamless movement from small to medium to large. The Indian Government, therefore, is working on a new vision for the SSI sector through a flexible approach and a motivated team. The advocacy role of Government now involves new dimensions such as building up and arguing cases before the world trade body or dispute redressal for a, articulating needs of small enterprises before decision makers and other agencies. Credit is increasingly being made available at international rates. Technology upgrades at both the cluster and the individual level are being assisted. Cluster level technologies will be at Government cost with only user charges recovered credit guarantee scheme has been put in place if our market has opened up to due to WTO, we need to enable our small units established foot holds in new markets opened up for then by globalisation. Thus, along with improving quality, they are being given the opportunity of over seas travel, conducting market surveys, test marketing etc. The existing industrial centres are being revamped by involving industry associations with some government assistance and finally a migration from sunset industries to sunrise industries is being encouraged through a comprehensive and graceful exit policy, which balances interest of labour with those of the owners. Conclusion The singular contribution of SMEs is on account of their unique characteristics. Their role in economic activity is manifest in both tangible and intangible ways. If this contribution is to be sustained, then their uniqueness needs to be nurtured in an overt and explicit manner. The Indian experience has shown that it is possible to design targeted interventions be they area specific like clusters or be they sector / sub-sector or product-specific. Other countries, be they Asian or OECD, also have policies which aim at similar support. The need of the hour is for us to learn from each other, drawing upon experiences and identity best practice policies. These in turn have to meet local conditions and circumstances. A one size fits all approach will not work. Nevertheless, there can be no two opinions about the priority that SME policies deserve for achieving the socio-economic goal of employment growth and social justice, along with the individual aspirations. Recent Government Policies and Measures In addition to the growth potential of the sector and its critical role in the manufacturing and value chains, the heterogeneity and the unorganised nature of the Indian MSMEs are important aspects that need to be factored into policy making an